Editing Marcomanni (section)

==Fourth century and later==
[[File:Pannonia03 en.png|thumb|4th-century Roman Pannonia]]
Although the Quadi and other allies continued to be mentioned by historians in the fourth century, the records say little about the Marcomanni until after the death of [[Valentinian I]] during a period of conflict with the Quadi in 375 AD, and after the great Roman defeat to the Goths, Alans and Huns at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378 AD. It seems that the [[Rugii]] and [[Heruli]] may have already moved into the Marcomanni's traditional region during this period. The ''[[Laterculus Veronensis]]'' shows that Heruli and Rugii were already present somewhere in western Europe in about 314. Similar listings from later in the 4th century, the ''Cosmographia'' of [[Julius Honorius]], and probably also the ''Liber Generationis'', both listed the Heruli together with the Marcomanni and Quadi, in whose traditional region the Herule kingdom would later be found.{{sfn|Liccardo|2024|pp=296-298}}

The defeat at Adrianople had a major impact upon the Pannonian/Danubian region. Although there is no consensus about the details, the Romans now quickly tried new approaches to settling newcomers in large numbers.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|pp=180-185}}{{sfn|Kulikowski|2007|pp=152-153}} One of the armed groups responsible for the defeat, led by [[Alatheus and Saphrax]], were settled into the Pannonian part of the Roman empire, near the Marcomanni homeland, and expected to do military service for Rome. In effect however, Rome seems to have lost effective control of the region. The Goths, Alans and Huns suddenly came to dominate several such regions, supposedly still within the empire, and also became massively important within the Roman military.

After the death of emperor [[Theodosius I]] in 395, [[Saint Jerome]] listed the Marcomanni, Quadi, Vandals and Sarmatians, together with several of the new eastern peoples causing devastation in the Roman provinces stretching from Constantinople to the [[Julian Alps]], including Dalmatia, and all the provinces of Pannonia: "Goths and Sarmatians, Quadi and Alans, Huns and Vandals and Marcomanni".<ref>{{harvtxt|Castritius|2005}} citing Jerome's ''Letters'' 60.16.2 f.</ref> Claudian describes them crossing the frozen Danube with wagons, and then setting wagons around themselves like a wall at the approach of the Roman commander [[Stilicho]]. He says that all the fertile lands between the Black Sea and Adriatic were subsequently like uninhabited deserts, specifically including Dalmatia and Pannonia. At the same time, the Gothic general [[Alaric I]], who had loyally served with his Gothic troops under Theodosius I at the [[Battle of Frigidus]] only a few months early, was beginning his famous rebellion, and started leading his army south, first towards Constantinople, and later towards Greece. This was triggered by internal Roman conflicts after the death of Theodosius. Claudian claimed that they were all incited by an Eastern Roman consul and enemy of Stilicho, [[Rufinus (consul)|Rufinus]].<ref>See for example {{harvtxt|Halsall|2007|p=194}} and {{harvtxt|Heather|1995|p=9}} citing Claudian ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Claudian/In_Rufinum/2*.html 2nd poem Against Rufinus]''</ref> The exact connection between Alaric and the groups who crossed the Danube at the same time remains unclear.{{sfn|Meier|2010}}

Soon after this, [[Ambrose]], bishop of Milan 374-397, corresponded with a Christian Marcomanni queen named [[Fritigil]], initiating a peace treaty between the Marcomanni and the western Roman military leader [[Stilicho]]. That was the last clear evidence of the Marcomanni having a polity, which was probably now on the Roman side of the Danube, in Pannonia. Soon afterward, the Pannonian and Danubian area went into a long period of turmoil, under the influence of peoples from the east including the Huns, Goths and Alans.{{sfn|Kehne|2001a|p=299}} Nevertheless, there are records indicating that Marcomanni continued to exist within Roman territory, where it seems that they were given initially responsibility for defence of parts of the Upper Danube. The ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'' which describes the Roman military of around 420 AD also lists palatine auxiliaries (court troops) of the ''Marcomanni Honoriani seniores'' and ''iuniores'' for Italy, as well as the ''Equites Marcomanni'' for the mobile army in North Africa.{{sfn|Castritius|2005|p=195}} 

Some of the Marcomanni may have been among the Suebi who invaded Iberia in about 409, and established the kingdom in the Roman province of [[Gallaecia]]. These Suevi were probably a mix of Suevian groups from the area north of Danube and [[Pannonian basin]] such as the Marcomanni, Quadi and [[Buri (Germanic tribe)|Buri]].

In the Danubian area, [[Attila]] came to be acknowledged as ruler. There is no direct ''contemporary'' evidence that any Marcomanni or Quadi continued to exist as his subjects or allies under their old names. However, centuries later [[Paulus Diaconus]] listed the subject peoples who Attila could call upon, in addition to the better-known Goths and Gepids, and mentioned "Marcomanni, Suebi, Quadi", alongside the expected "Herules, Thuringi and Rugii". This implies that the Marcomanni might for example have been present at the [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]] in 451. However, modern scholars have doubts about whether the Marcomanni or Quadi would still have been identified under those names under Attila in 451, because contemporary sources don't mention them.{{sfn|Kolník|2003|p=636}}

While it is not clear what happened to the Marcomanni and other Suebi during Attila's time, after he died in 453 a Suebian kingdom appeared which was ruled by a man named [[Hunimund]] and existed in or near north-eastern Pannonia. This may have been made up of Quadi, or a mixture of Suebians. After being defeated by the Ostrogoths, Hunimund and some of his people seem to have moved west and joined the [[Alemanni]].{{sfn|Castritius|2005|p=195}} The record which mentions the Suebi joining the Alemanni is also one of the first records mentioning the early [[Bavarians]], or [[Baiuvarii]], who were also living south of the Danube, to the east of the Alemanni, in what had been Roman territory. It is generally believed that their name is Germanic, and that it indicates an origin in the nearby regions to the east, including Roman Pannonia, which were once inhabited by the Boii. It is therefore considered very likely that the Baiuvarii included Marcomanni.{{sfn|Hamann|1973}}

Possibly distinct from the Suebi led by Hunimund, the ''[[Ravenna Cosmography]]'', a much later document which used sources which are in many cases now lost, indicates that a Marcannori people (''Marcannorum gens'') lived in the mountainous southwest of Pannonia near the [[Sava]] river. A Sava or Suavia province between the Sava and [[Drava]] rivers, continued to exist during the time when the Ostrogoths ruled Italy, and may have been named after these Suebi (Suavi). It is possible that the Suebi moved into this more southern area after the defeat of Hunimund, or they may have been a separate group. During the Ostrogothic period, these Suebi were legally distinguished from the native populations under the term "old barbarians" (''antiqui barbari''), which also distinguished them legally from the new non-Romans, the Goths. Unusually, they were legally permitted to marry the provincial residents, and could therefore become part of the land owning class. Some scholars believe these were descendants of the Christian Marcomanni of Queen Fritigil. During the time of [[Theoderic the Great]] a group of Alemanni crossed the alps with cattle and wagons to seek refuge with these ''antiqui barbari''. [[Procopius]] noted that in 537, the [[Ostrogoths]] recruited an army of these Suebi to launch an attack against areas held by the Eastern Roman empire. In 540 Ostrogothic rule in the Sava region came to an end, and the Suebi came under the authority of Eastern Roman emperor [[Justinian]].{{sfn|Castritius|2005|pp=196-201}}

In the 530s the [[Langobardi]] (Lombards), who had been moving southwards in steps over several generations, entered the Sava area, and in the 540s the Eastern empire ceded control of it to them. The Suebi of the Sava region were among the peoples who were allowed to assimilate into Lombard society, if they accepted to live as Lombards under Lombard law.{{sfn|Castritius|2005|pp=201-202}} The Lombards, facing pressure from the arrival of the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] into the area, moved into Italy and began taking control of it, bit by bit.