Editing Matrix of domination (section)

== Intersectionality of gender and class ==

=== Benefits among class ===

The benefits that upper-class citizens receive from their employer are far different from that of working-class employees. This is due to the upper class taking jobs that give them a higher status or position, whereas the working class take jobs with lower status such as retail and blue-collar jobs.<ref name="Pacific Standard">{{Cite news|url=https://psmag.com/economics/work-life-balance-benefits-low-wage-workers-employers-35733.|title=Work-Life Balance Benefits Low-Wage Workers, Employers|work=Pacific Standard|access-date=2018-03-30|language=en}}</ref> The most obvious benefit that differs between classes is the amount of money made. Upper-class workers receive significantly more pay than the working class, and while the upper class receive salaries, the lower class typically receive their pay based on hourly wages.<ref name="Pacific Standard"/> Moreover, the chance of getting a raise is greater for the higher-ups. More benefits that the upper class enjoy over the working class are vacation time, flexible hours, retirement savings, and greater coverage of healthcare and insurance.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://workingclassstudies.wordpress.com/2008/07/28/who-is-working-class/|title=Who is working class?|date=2008-07-28|work=Working-Class Perspectives|access-date=2018-03-30|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Benefits among gender ===

When it comes to workplace benefits such as health insurance coverage, pensions, sick leave, and disability plans, there are gender differences in whether or not these benefits are offered. Women are less likely to be offered pensions, health coverage and disability plans. In fact, high poverty rates among elderly women have been linked to lack of pension coverage. Additionally, many female heads of household remain on welfare because they cannot find jobs with adequate health insurance coverage. When it comes to union contracts, men are also twice as likely to be covered.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3386/w4265 |title=Gender Gaps in Benefits Coverage |last=Currie |first=Janet |date=January 1993 |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 4265 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This gender gap in benefits coverage may be due to the fact that women tend to have higher medical expenditures than males of the same age. As a result, some of the observed gap in wages between males and females in the United States could be the result of employers compensating for the higher cost of employer-sponsored health insurance. This further perpetuates gender discrimination because it means that firms who offer ESI (Employer Sponsored Insurance) will prefer to hire males. Another effect of women generally having greater healthcare expenses than men is that they are likely to place a higher value on insurance and be more inclined to pass up jobs for insurance-related reasons. This lowers the probability of obtaining jobs that pay higher wages directly and decrease a woman's bargaining power with her current employer. Indeed, health insurance has a larger (negative) effect on the job mobility of women, which they attribute to women's elevated healthcare expenses.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-01-01|title=Employer-sponsored health insurance and the gender wage gap |journal=Journal of Health Economics|language=en|volume=45|pages=103–114|doi=10.1016/j.jhealeco.2015.09.008|pmid=26614691 |issn=0167-6296|last1=Cowan |first1=Benjamin |last2=Schwab |first2=Benjamin }}</ref>

=== Wage gap among class ===

In the United States there is an unequal distribution of income between social classes for multiple reasons. Level of education has a great influence on average salaries. The higher the socioeconomic status (SES) of an individual the more likely they are to graduate from high school and potentially obtain a college degree, which in return increases their chances of a larger salary. The average salary of an individual with a high school diploma is about $35,000, but increases to about $60,000 by obtaining a bachelor's degree after.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://smartasset.com/retirement/the-average-salary-by-education-level|title=The Average Salary by Education Level - SmartAsset|website=SmartAsset|language=en|access-date=2018-03-30}}</ref> The gap in salary increases with each additional level of education received. Those in the lower class face more obstacles and have less opportunities to pursue additional education due to their lack of resources. The wage gap is even larger for individuals affected by poverty and racial barriers. Whites have a median income of about $71,000 while blacks have a median income of about $43,000.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/1-demographic-trends-and-economic-well-being/|title=1. Demographic trends and economic well-being|date=2016-06-27|work=Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project|access-date=2018-03-30|language=en-US}}</ref> Statistics show that blacks make up 16% of public high school graduates, 14% of those enrolling in college, and only 9% of those receiving a bachelor's degree. At the same time, whites make up 59%, 58%, and 69%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/24/more-hispanics-blacks-enrolling-in-college-but-lag-in-bachelors-degrees/|title=More Hispanics, blacks enrolling in college, but lag in bachelor's degrees|date=2014-04-24|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=2018-03-30|language=en-US}}</ref> That is a 61% difference between blacks not obtaining a bachelor's degree and whites graduating with one. Individuals in poverty already face a disadvantage in obtaining the same level of income as their upper class coworkers, but when also affected by racial barriers the chances of reaching the same income are even fewer.

=== Wage gap among gender ===

There is definitely intersectionality and inequality with women and men when it comes to wage gaps. Careers that pay well are often male dominated, and do not tolerate women and their personal needs. There has been a stable "pay gap" between men and women which has remained between 10–20% difference in their average earnings. (Women, careers and work life preferences).  When discussing wage gaps between genders, scientists takes into account two questions, the first being "is there differential access jobs on the basis of gender?" and the second being, "is women’s work perceived to have less value than comparable work done by men?".  When women begin to increase their numbers in certain job positions the status or value of the job decreases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hakim|first=Catherine|date=18 January 2017|title=Women, careers, and work-life preferences|journal= British Journal of Guidance & Counselling|volume=34|issue=3|pages=279–294|doi=10.1080/03069880600769118|citeseerx=10.1.1.463.726|s2cid=13388770}}</ref> Conceptualizing intersectionality through class, gender and race then identifying the barriers that create inequality in Work organizations is found in the idea of "inequality regimes". Workplaces are prominent locations to analyze the continuous efforts of inequalities because many societal inequality issues stem in such areas. In the works of Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations, inequality in gender, race, class are examined through intersectionality in organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alksins|first=Christine|date=21 May 2008|title=Workforce Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap: Is "Women's" Work Valued as Highly as "Men's"?|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|volume=38|issue=6|pages=1416–1441|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00354.x}}</ref> Joane Acker discussed Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations in Sociologists for Women in Society Feminists Lecture through studies conducted using Swedish Bank. Studies have shown in the 1980s depict that wage gaps were increasing between genders. Men were being rewarded the higher paying positions such as local managers, and believed fair wages for men should be higher than fair wages for women.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=INEQUALITY REGIMES Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations|journal = Gender & Society|volume = 20|issue = 4|pages = 441–464|last=Acker|first=Joan|doi=10.1177/0891243206289499|year = 2006|s2cid = 145118830}}</ref>

=== Representation among class ===

Social class plays a large role on people's everyday life, yet their representation is not always fair. In television and popular culture, those who fall into the lower class are often portrayed differently based on if they are a woman or a man. If they are a woman, they often are portrayed as being more intelligent and responsible than their husbands, almost acting as their mothers.<ref name=":1"/> The male head of the household is typically portrayed as being less intelligent, with some redeeming qualities, but typically is not respected.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/eotv/socialclass.htm|title=The Museum of Broadcast Communications - Encyclopedia of Television - Social Class and Television|website=www.museum.tv|access-date=2018-03-30}}</ref> Together they can be shown in a light that makes them seem lazy or dishonest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woods|first=Taniesha|date=October 25, 2004|title=The Development of Stereotypes About the Rich and Poor: Age, Race, and Family Income Differences in Beliefs|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/108157/Stereotype%20Development.pdf?sequence=1|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=34}}</ref> The upper class however, does not face these same issues with representation in the media. The man of the household takes on stereotypical male qualities, while the woman takes on stereotypical female qualities. The children in this upper class scenario are what provides entertainment value, rather than focusing on the unintelligent and unorganized adults as in the lower class model.<ref name=":1" /> Overall, in the upper-class family unit, they are portrayed as organized and put together, while the lower class model are portrayed as lazy and unorganized.

=== Representation among gender ===

Whether one is a manager of a fast food restaurant or the CEO of a Fortune 500 company, authority is power and power is advantage. But just like the widespread power struggle, there is a widespread equality struggle. One of the largest workplace and societal inequalities is the inequality between genders. A prime example of this is the wage gap. Women in 2016 earned, on average, 82 cents to a man's dollar. This unequal pay is part of the reason that many women are the ones to leave the workforce when it is determined that a stay-at-home parent is required; if women are contributing less to the household income, it will make less of an impact if they quit their jobs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/04/04/pf/equal-pay-day-gender-pay-gap/index.html|title=5 things to know about the gender pay gap|last=Vasel|first=Kathryn|work=CNNMoney|access-date=2018-03-30}}</ref> Women are also not granted the same opportunities for employment as men. A clear example is the U.S. military. Women were banned from all combat roles until recently. In 2011, only 14 percent of the armed forces were female, and only 14 percent of officers were female.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/01/24/us/military-women-glance/index.html|title=By the numbers: Women in the U.S. military|author=CNN Staff|work=CNN|access-date=2018-03-30}}</ref> Another example is the U.S. congress. In 2015, 80 percent of the Senate was male, and only 20 was female. This numbers were similar for the House, at 80.6 percent male and 19.4 percent female.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/01/05/the-new-congress-is-80-percent-white-80-percent-male-and-92-percent-christian/|title=The new Congress is 80 percent white, 80 percent male and 92 percent Christian|last=Bump|first=Philip|date=2015-01-05|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2018-03-30|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> The gender composition of the military and the government, along with the wage gap, shines a lights on the gender inequality experienced right here at home, but this inequality is more greatly felt abroad. Some countries place strict limitations on women, not allowing them to vote or work or even drive a car. While the U.S. is seen as a country of dreams and opportunity, is far easier to see this when compared to an even more unequal country. The United States has been trending toward gender equality in recent years, but it has a while to go.

=== Research contributions ===

An article found in the November 1998 issue of ''Social Problems'' details the conflict involving racial domination by identifying the complexity African-Americans face.  In many cases, sociologists and laypersons alike are often limited in their approach to the problem.  Michelle Byng, in "Mediating Discrimination: Oppression among African-American Muslim Women"—the 1998 article—brings to focus new approaches to understanding discrimination, but also, she writes to illustrate the many overlooked opportunities in which the discriminated are able to empower themselves in certain situations.