Editing Mirror test (section)

=== Animals that have passed ===

==== Mammals ====

===== Cetaceans =====
* [[Bottlenose dolphin]] (''Tursiops truncatus''): Researchers in a study on two male bottlenose dolphins observed their reactions to mirrors after having a mark placed on them. Reactions such as decreased delay in approaching the mirror, repetitious head circling and close viewing of the eye or genital region that had been marked, were reported as evidence of MSR in these species.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511565526.026 |chapter=Evidence of self-awareness in the bottlenose dolphin (''Tursiops truncatus'') |title=Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans |year=1994 |last1=Marten |first1=Kenneth |last2=Psarakos |first2=Suchi |pages=361–379 |isbn=978-0-521-02591-1 }}</ref><ref name="Reiss">{{cite journal |last1=Reiss |first1=Diana |last2=Marino |first2=Lori |title=Mirror self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: A case of cognitive convergence |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=8 May 2001 |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5937–5942 |doi=10.1073/pnas.101086398 |pmid=11331768 |pmc=33317 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5937R |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Killer whale]] (''Orcinus orca''): Killer whales and [[false killer whale]]s (''Pseudorca crassidens'') may be able to recognise themselves in mirrors.<ref name="Delfour">{{cite journal |last1=Delfour |first1=F |last2=Marten |first2=K |title=Mirror image processing in three marine mammal species: killer whales (''Orcinus orca''), false killer whales (''Pseudorca crassidens'') and California sea lions (''Zalophus californianus'') |journal=Behavioural Processes |date=April 2001 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=181–190 |doi=10.1016/s0376-6357(01)00134-6 |pmid=11334706 |s2cid=31124804 }}</ref>

===== Primates =====
* [[Bonobo]] (''[[Pan paniscus]]'')<ref name="Walraven">{{cite journal|last1=Walraven|first1=V.|last2=van Elsacker|first2=L.|last3=Verheyen|first3=R.|s2cid=38985498|year=1995|title=Reactions of a group of pygmy chimpanzees (''Pan paniscus'') to their mirror images: evidence of self-recognition|journal=Primates|volume=36|issue=1|pages=145–150|doi=10.1007/bf02381922}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Greg C. Westergaard|author2=C. W. Hyatt|s2cid=85077838|title=The responses of bonobos (''Pan paniscus'') to their mirror images: Evidence of self-recognition|journal=Human Evolution|date=1994|volume=9|issue=4|pages=273–279|doi=10.1007/BF02435514}}</ref>
*[[Bornean orangutan]] (''[[Pongo pygmaeus]]''):<ref name="Suarez">{{cite journal |last1=Suarez |first1=Susan D. |last2=Gallup |first2=Gordon G. |title=Self-recognition in chimpanzees and orangutans, but not gorillas |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=February 1981 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=175–188 |doi=10.1016/s0047-2484(81)80016-4 |bibcode=1981JHumE..10..175S }}</ref> However, mirror tests with an infant (2-year-old), male orangutan failed to reveal self-recognition.<ref name="Robert">{{cite journal |last1=Robert |first1=S. |title=Ontogeny of mirror behavior in two species of great apes |journal=American Journal of Primatology |date=1986 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=109–117 |doi=10.1002/ajp.1350100202 |pmid=31979488 |s2cid=85330986 }}</ref>
* [[Chimpanzee]] (''[[Pan troglodytes]]''):<ref name="Gallup" /><ref name="miller">{{cite news |title=Minding the animals: Ethology and the obsolescence of left humanism |last=Miller |first=J. |year=2009 |magazine=American Chronicle |url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/102661 |access-date=21 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first= D. |last=Povinelli |author2=de Veer, M.|author3= Gallup Jr., G.|author4= Theall, L.|author5= van den Bos, R. |s2cid=9400080 |title=An 8-year longitudinal study of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes'') |journal= Neuropsychologia |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=229–334 |doi=10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00153-7|year=2003 |pmid=12459221 }}</ref> However, mirror tests with an infant (11 months old) male chimpanzee failed to reveal self-recognition.<ref name="Robert" /> Two young chimpanzees showed retention of MSR after one year without access to mirrors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calhoun |first1=Suzanne |last2=Thompson |first2=Robert L. |title=Long-term retention of self-recognition by chimpanzees |journal=American Journal of Primatology |date=1988 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=361–365 |doi=10.1002/ajp.1350150409 |pmid=31968884 |s2cid=84381806 }}</ref>
* [[Western gorilla]] (''[[Gorilla gorilla]]''): Findings for western gorillas have been mixed; more so than for the other great apes. At least four studies have reported that [[gorilla]]s failed to show self-recognition.<ref name="Suarez" /><ref name="Shillito">{{cite journal|last1=Shillito|first1=D.J.|last2=Gallup|first2=G.G.|last3=Beck|first3=B.B.|year=1999|title=Factors affecting mirror behavior in western lowland gorillas, ''Gorilla gorilla''|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=57|issue=5|pages=999–1004|doi=10.1006/anbe.1998.1062|pmid=10328785|s2cid=23093090 }}</ref><ref name="Ledbetter">{{cite journal |last1=Ledbetter |first1=David H. |last2=Basen |first2=Jeffry A. |title=Failure to demonstrate self-recognition in gorillas |journal=American Journal of Primatology |date=1982 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=307–310 |doi=10.1002/ajp.1350020309 |pmid=32192240 |s2cid=84369215 }}</ref><ref name="Nicholson">{{cite journal |last1=Nicholson |first1=India S. |last2=Gould |first2=Jay E. |title=Mirror mediated object discrimination and self-directed behavior in a female gorilla |journal=Primates |date=October 1995 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=515–521 |doi=10.1007/bf02382873 |s2cid=21450768 }}</ref> However, other studies have shown self-recognition in captive gorillas with extensive [[human]] contact. Such gorillas show less aversion to direct eye contact than wild gorillas. In wild gorillas, as in many other animals, prolonged direct eye contact is an aggressive gesture, and gorillas may fail the mirror test because they deliberately avoid closely examining or making eye contact with their reflections.<ref name="The Great Ape Project" /><ref name="Kind" /> Gorillas who have passed the MSR were habituated to the mirror before testing and were not subject to anesthesia during the marking process.<ref name="Allen">{{cite thesis | last=Allen | first=Melinda R. | date=2007 | title=Mirror self-recognition in a gorilla (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') | publisher=Florida International University | doi=10.25148/etd.fi13101588 | doi-access=free | degree=MS }}</ref><ref name="Posada">{{cite journal |last1=Posada |first1=Sandra |last2=Colell |first2=Montserrat |title=Another gorilla (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') recognizes himself in a mirror |journal=American Journal of Primatology |date=May 2007 |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=576–583 |doi=10.1002/ajp.20355 |pmid=17154375 |s2cid=44854009 }}</ref> [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]] was among the gorillas who passed the MSR test under these circumstances.<ref name="The Great Ape Project">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.animal-rights-library.com/texts-m/patterson01.htm|title=The Great Ape Project|author1=Patterson, F.|author2=Gordon, W.|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|year=1993|editor=Cavalieri, P.|pages=58–77|chapter=The case for personhood of gorillas|editor2=Singer, P.|name-list-style=amp}}</ref><ref name="Kind">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiuwCgAAQBAJ|title=Persons and Personal Identity |last=Kind|first=Amy |date=2015-10-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781509500246|language=en}}</ref>

===== Proboscidea =====
*[[Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus''): In a study performed in 2006, three female Asian elephants were exposed to a large mirror to investigate their responses. Visible marks and invisible sham-marks were applied to the elephants' heads to test whether they would pass the MSR test.<ref name="Plotnik2006" /> One of the elephants showed mark-directed behavior, though the other two did not. An earlier study failed to find MSR in two Asian elephants;<ref name="Povinelli1989">{{cite journal |last1=Povinelli |first1=Daniel J. |title=Failure to find self-recognition in Asian elephants (''Elephas maximus'') in contrast to their use of mirror cues to discover hidden food. |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |date=1989 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=122–131 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.103.2.122 }}</ref> it was claimed this was because the mirror was too small.<ref name="Plotnik2006">{{cite journal|last1=Plotnik|first1=J.M.|last2=de Waal|first2=F.B.M.|last3=Reiss|first3=D.|year=2006|title=Self-recognition in an Asian elephant|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=103|issue=45|pages=17053–17057|doi=10.1073/pnas.0608062103|pmid=17075063|bibcode=2006PNAS..10317053P|pmc=1636577|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Elephantselfawareness">{{cite news | title = Elephants' Jumbo Mirror Ability | publisher = [[BBC News]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6100430.stm | access-date = 2007-10-31 | date=2006-10-31}}</ref>

===== Rodents =====

* [[House mouse]] (''Mus musculus)''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-06 |title=Mouse passes mirror test, joining elite club of 'self-aware' animals |url=https://newatlas.com/biology/mouse-passes-mirror-test/ |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Birds ====
[[File:Mirror-Induced-Behavior-in-the-Magpie-(Pica-pica)-Evidence-of-Self-Recognition-pbio.0060202.sv008.ogv|thumb|220px|Video of the responses of a European magpie in an MSR test: The magpie repeatedly attempts to remove the marks.]]
* [[Eurasian magpie]] (''Pica pica''): The Eurasian magpie is the first non-mammal to have been found to pass the mirror test. In 2008, researchers applied a small red, yellow, or black sticker to the throat of five Eurasian magpies, where they could be seen by the bird only by using a mirror. The birds were then given a mirror. The feel of the sticker on their throats did not seem to alarm the magpies. However, when the birds with colored stickers glimpsed themselves in the mirror, they scratched at their throats—a clear indication that they recognised the image in the mirror as their own. Those that received a black sticker, invisible against the black neck feathers, did not react.<ref name="Prior">{{cite journal
 |last1=Prior|first1=H.
 |last2=Schwarz|first2=A.
 |last3=Güntürkün|first3=O. 
 |title=Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (''Pica pica''): Evidence of self-recognition 
 |journal=PLOS Biology 
 |year=2008 
 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202 
 |doi-access=free
 |volume=6 
 |page=e202 
 |pmid=18715117 
 |issue=8 
 |pmc=2517622 
}}</ref> In 2020, researchers attempted to closely replicate the 2008 study with a larger number of magpies, and failed to confirm the results of the 2008 study. The researchers stated that while these results did not disprove the 2008 study, the failure to replicate indicated the results of the original study should be treated with caution.<ref name="Solar">{{cite journal
 |last1=Solar|first1=M.
 |last2=Colmenero|first2=J.
 |last3=Pérez-Contreras|first3=T. 
 |last4=Peralta-Sánchez|first4=J.
 |title=Replication of the mirror mark test experiment in the magpie (''Pica pica'') does not provide evidence of self-recognition
 |journal=J Comp Psychol
 |year=2020
 |volume=134
 |issue=4
 |pages=363–371
 |doi=10.1037/com0000223
 |pmid=32406720
|s2cid=218636079
 }}</ref>

* [[Indian house crow]] (''Corvus splendens''): House crows were found to pass the mirror test in 2019. Six wild-caught crows had a red or yellow mark applied to their throat, then given a mirror. Their reactions were then compared to behaviour exhibited when the mark was applied in absence of a mirror, and when a black mark — not visible against the black throat — was applied both with and without a mirror. Four of the six birds displayed mark-directed behaviour spontaneously when first shown a mirror. The behaviours of these birds were then compared; the birds showed statistically increased levels of plumage ruffling and head shaking in the mark-mirror trials.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buniyaadi |first1=Amaan |last2=Tahajjul Taufique |first2=S. K. |last3=Kumar |first3=Vinod |title=Self-recognition in corvids: evidence from the mirror-mark test in Indian house crows (Corvus splendens) |journal=Journal of Ornithology |date=2019-11-05 |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=341–350 |doi=10.1007/s10336-019-01730-2}}</ref> Another study done on five house crows failed to replicate the result, to which they list several experimental differences, such as length of mirror and mark exposure and sticker weight. They additionally note that only two of the four crows that exhibited mark-directed behaviour in the original experiment did so at a high frequency, and that of the other two, one was preening at high levels during mirror exposure without a mark— suggesting that any perceived mark-directed behaviours observed could be a part of general preening behaviour. These authors conclude that under their [[paradigm]], house crows do not appear to pass the mark test, but also emphasize the high level of variability in results from the mark test and the necessity for testing to be done with larger sample sizes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parishar |first1=Pooja |last2=Mohapatra |first2=Alok Nath |last3=Iyengar |first3=Soumya |title=Investigating Behavioral Responses to Mirrors and the Mark Test in Adult Male Zebra Finches and House Crows |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2021-04-12 |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637850 |doi-access=free |pmid=33935888 |pmc=8082158 }}</ref>

* Some [[pigeons]] can pass the mirror test after training in the prerequisite behaviors.<ref name="uchbino">{{Cite journal |last1=Uchino |first1=Emiko |last2=Watanabe |first2=Shigeru |date=2014-11-01 |title=Self-recognition in pigeons revisited |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |language=en |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=327–334 |doi=10.1002/jeab.112 |pmid=25307108 |s2cid=31499014 }}</ref> In 1981, American psychologist [[B. F. Skinner]] found that pigeons are capable of passing a highly modified mirror test after extensive training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Epstei |first1=Robert |last2=Lanza |first2=Robert P. |last3=Skinner |first3=B. F. |date=1981-05-08 |title="Self-Awareness" in the Pigeon |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.212.4495.695 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=212 |issue=4495 |pages=695–696 |doi=10.1126/science.212.4495.695 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=17739404|bibcode=1981Sci...212..695E |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719225835/http://psychology.lafayette.edu/files/2010/06/selfaware.mov This is video of one such test]</ref> In the experiment, a pigeon was [[Operant conditioning|trained]] to look in a mirror to find a response key behind it, which the pigeon then turned to peck to obtain food. Thus, the pigeon learned to use a mirror to find critical elements of its environment. Next, the pigeon was trained to peck at dots placed on its feathers; food was, again, the consequence of touching the dot. The latter training was accomplished in the absence of the mirror. The final test was placing a small bib on the pigeon—enough to cover a dot placed on its lower belly. A control period without the mirror present yielded no pecking at the dot. When the mirror was revealed, the pigeon became active, looked in the mirror and then tried to peck on the dot under the bib. However, [[Animal training|untrained]] pigeons have never passed the mirror test.<ref name="de Waal2008">{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B. M |title=The Thief in the Mirror |journal=PLOS Biology |date=19 August 2008 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=e201 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060201 |pmid=18715116 |pmc=2517621 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Fish ====
* [[Bluestreak cleaner wrasse]] (''Labroides dimidiatus''): According to a study done in 2019, [[cleaner wrasses]] were the first fish observed to pass the mirror test.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |last2=Phys.org |title=Bluestreak cleaner wrasse found to recognize self in photograph after passing mirror test |url=https://phys.org/news/2023-02-bluestreak-cleaner-wrasse-mirror.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |last2=Phys.org |title=Small fish passes classic self-awareness test |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-09-small-fish-classic-self-awareness.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref> The bluestreak cleaner wrasse is a tiny tropical reef [[cleaner fish]]. Cleaner fish have an adapted evolutionary behavior in which they remove parasites and dead tissue from larger fish. When put through the mirror test, using a benign brown gel injected into the skin of the fish, and resembling a parasite, the cleaner wrasse showed all the behaviors of passing through the phases of the test. When provided with a colored tag in a modified mark test, the fish attempted to scrape off this tag by scraping their bodies on the side of the mirror. Gordon Gallup believes the cleaner wrasses' behavior can be attributed to something other than recognizing itself in a mirror. Gallup has argued that a cleaner wrasse's job in life is to be aware of ectoparasites on the bodies of other fish, so it would be hyper aware of the fake parasite that it noticed in the mirror, perhaps seeing it as a parasite that it needed to clean off of a different fish. The authors of the study retort that because the fish checked itself in the mirror before and after the scraping, this means that the fish has self-awareness and recognizes that its reflection belongs to its own body.<ref>{{cite web |last=Buehler |first=Jake |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/fish-cleaner-wrasse-self-aware-mirror-test-intelligence-news |title=This tiny fish can recognize itself in a mirror. Is it self-aware? |date=2019-02-08 |website=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=2025-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302171854/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/fish-cleaner-wrasse-self-aware-mirror-test-intelligence-news |archive-date=2021-03-02 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A species of fish has passed the mirror test for the first time|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2178329-a-species-of-fish-has-passed-the-mirror-test-for-the-first-time/|last=Ye|first=Yvaine|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-11}}</ref><ref name="rxiv-fish">{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000021 |doi-access=free|title=If a fish can pass the mark test, what are the implications for consciousness and self-awareness testing in animals? |year=2019 |last1=Kohda|first1=Masanori |last2=Hotta|first2=Takashi |last3=Takeyama|first3=Tomohiro |last4=Awata|first4=Satoshi |last5=Tanaka|first5=Hirokazu |last6=Asai|first6=Jun-ya |last7=Jordan|first7=Alex L. |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000021|pmid=30730878|pmc=6366756}}</ref> The cleaner wrasses, when tested, spent a large amount of time with the mirror when they were first getting acquainted with it, without any training. Importantly, the cleaner wrasses performed scraping behavior with the colored mark, and they did not perform the same scraping behavior without the colored mark in the presence of the mirror, nor when they were with the mirror and had a transparent mark.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000112 |pmid = 30730875|title = Fish, mirrors, and a gradualist perspective on self-awareness|journal = PLOS Biology|volume = 17|issue = 2|pages = e3000112|year = 2019|last1 = De Waal|first1 = Frans B. M.|pmc = 6366752 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Following various objections, the researchers published a follow-up study in 2022, where they did the mirror test on a larger sample of wrasses and experimented with several marking techniques. The new results "increase[d] [the researchers'] confidence that cleaner fish indeed pass the mark test", although wrasses attempted to scrape off the mark only when it resembled a parasite.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferreira|first=Becky|title=Fish Might Really Be Self-Aware, New Study Finds|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/fish-might-really-be-self-aware-new-study-finds/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218072538/https://www.vice.com/en/article/z3nwgw/fish-might-really-be-self-aware-new-study-finds|archive-date=February 18, 2022|access-date=February 19, 2022|website=Vice|url-status=live|date=17 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kohda|first1=Masanori|last2=Sogawa|first2=Shumpei|last3=Jordan|first3=Alex L.|last4=Kubo|first4=Naoki|last5=Awata|first5=Satoshi|last6=Satoh|first6=Shun|last7=Kobayashi|first7=Taiga|last8=Fujita|first8=Akane|last9=Bshary|first9=Redouan|date=2022-02-17|title=Further evidence for the capacity of mirror self-recognition in cleaner fish and the significance of ecologically relevant marks|journal=PLOS Biology|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=e3001529|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001529|pmid=35176032 |issn=1545-7885|pmc=8853551 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another study in 2024 found that cleaner wrasse that initially showed aggression to photographs 10% larger and 10% smaller than themselves ceased confrontation with 10% larger photographs upon encountering their reflection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Taiga |last2=Kohda |first2=Masanori |last3=Awata |first3=Satoshi |last4=Bshary |first4=Redouan |last5=Sogawa |first5=Shumpei |date=2024-09-11 |title=Cleaner fish with mirror self-recognition capacity precisely realize their body size based on their mental image |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=20202 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-70138-7 |pmid=39261520 |issn=2045-2322|pmc=11390716 |bibcode=2024NatSR..1420202K }}</ref>
*[[Giant oceanic manta ray]] (''Mobula birostris''): In 2016 a modified mirror test done on two captive manta rays showed that they exhibited behavior associated with [[self-awareness]] (i.e. contingency checking and unusual self-directed behavior).<ref name="Ari" />

====Crustaceans====
*[[Atlantic ghost crab]] (''Ocypode quadrata''): A 2023 study found that these crabs seem to be capable of recognizing themselves in a mirror. The study's author concluded that the data indicate that the crabs have "a rudimentary form of self-awareness".<ref name="Robinson2023">{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=T. |title=Mirror self-recognition in ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata) |journal=Animal Cognition |date=14 June 2023 |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=1539–1549 |doi=10.1007/s10071-023-01800-2 |pmid=37314594 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-023-01800-2 |access-date=25 November 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
'''Cephalopods'''
*[[Mimic octopus]] (''Thaumoctopus mimicus''): A video in 2025 showed a Mimic Octopus recognising itself in a mirror.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQYSJ6igK_w |title=Sea Creatures vs Mirror: Do They Recognize Themselves (or Attack)? |date=2025-02-12 |last=Barny Dillarstone |access-date=2025-02-20 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

==== Insects ====
* [[Myrmica rubra]], [[Myrmica ruginodis]], and [[Myrmica sabuleti]]: A 2015 study found that individuals ants of these three ant species would attempt to clean themselves after being exposed to a mirror and seeing a blue dot on their bodies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lei |first1=Yanyu |title=Sociality and self-awareness in animals |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=9 January 2023 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1065638 |doi-access=free |pmid=36710826 |pmc=9881685 }}</ref>{{better source needed|Sussy journal; cf. our own article [[Frontiers in Psychology]]|date=May 2025}}