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Morphometrics
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==Ecology and evolutionary biology== [[D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson|D'Arcy Thompson]] in 1917 suggested that shapes in many different species could also be related in this way. In the case of shells and horns he gave a fairly precise analysis... But he also drew various pictures of fishes and skulls, and argued that they were related by deformations of coordinates.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wolfram |first=Stephen |title=A New Kind of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/newkindofscience00wolf/page/1010 |year=2002 |publisher=Wolfram Media, Inc. |isbn=978-1-57955-008-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newkindofscience00wolf/page/1010 1010] |url-access=registration }}</ref> Shape analysis is widely used in ecology and evolutionary biology to study plasticity,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Parsons | first1 = K. J. | last2 = Sheets | first2 = H. D. | last3 = Skulason | first3 = S. | last4 = Ferguson | first4 = M. M. | year = 2011 | title = Phenotypic plasticity, heterochrony and ontogenetic repatterning during juvenile development of divergent Arctic charr (''Salvelinus alpinus'') | journal = Journal of Evolutionary Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 8| pages = 1640–1652 | doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02301.x | pmid=21599773| s2cid = 9741179 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hollander | first1 = J. | last2 = Collyer | first2 = M. L. | last3 = Adams | first3 = D. C. |author4-link=Kerstin Johannesson | last4 = Johannesson | first4 = K. | year = 2006 | title = Phenotypic plasticity in two marine snails: constraints superseding life history | journal = Journal of Evolutionary Biology | volume = 19 | issue = 6| pages = 1861–1872 | doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01171.x | pmid=17040383| s2cid = 17342939 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gonzalez | first1 = P. N. | last2 = Hallgrimsson | first2 = B. | last3 = Oyhenart | first3 = E. E. |author-link3= Evelia Edith Oyhenart | year = 2011 | title = Developmental plasticity in covariance structure of the skull: effects of prenatal stress | journal = Journal of Anatomy | volume = 218 | issue = 2| pages = 243–257 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01326.x | pmid=21138433 | pmc=3042757}}</ref> evolutionary changes in shape<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Monteiro | first1 = L. R. | last2 = Nogueira | first2 = M. R. | year = 2009 | title = Adaptive radiations, ecological specialization, and the evolutionary integration of complex morphological structures | journal = Evolution | volume = 64 | issue = 3| pages = 724–743 | doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00857.x | pmid=19804403| s2cid = 5256038 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Drake | first1 = A. G. | last2 = Klingenberg | first2 = C. P. | year = 2008 | title = The pace of morphological change: historical transformation of skull shape in St Bernard dogs | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 275 | issue = 1630| pages = 71–76 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1169 | pmid=17956847 | pmc=2562403}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Berner | first1 = D. | last2 = Adams | first2 = D. C. | last3 = Grandchamp | first3 = A. C. | last4 = Hendry | first4 = A. P. | year = 2008 | title = Natural selection drives patterns of lake-stream divergence in stickleback foraging morphology | journal = Journal of Evolutionary Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 1653–1665 | doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01583.x | pmid=18691241| s2cid = 11184677 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Swiderski | first1 = D. L. | last2 = Zelditch | first2 = M. L. | year = 2010 | title = Morphological diversity despite isometric scaling of lever arms | journal = Evolutionary Biology | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–18 | doi=10.1007/s11692-010-9081-8| bibcode = 2010EvBio..37....1S | s2cid = 39484740 }}</ref> and in evolutionary developmental biology to study the evolution of the ontogeny of shape,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mitteroecker | first1 = P. | last2 = Gunz | first2 = P. | last3 = Bookstein | first3 = F. L. | year = 2005 | title = Heterochrony and geometric morphometrics: a comparison of cranial growth in ''Pan paniscus'' versus ''Pan troglodyte''s | journal = Evolution & Development | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 244–258 | doi=10.1111/j.1525-142x.2005.05027.x| pmid = 15876197 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.460.8419 | s2cid = 14370905 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frederich | first1 = B. | last2 = Adriaens | first2 = D. | last3 = Vandewalle | first3 = P. | year = 2008 | title = Ontogenetic shape changes in Pomacentridae (Teleostei, Perciformes) and their relationships with feeding strategies: a geometric morphometric approach | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 95 | pages = 92–105 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01003.x| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zelditch | first1 = M. L. | last2 = Sheets | first2 = H. D. | last3 = Fink | first3 = W. L. | year = 2003 | title = The ontogenetic dynamics of shape disparity | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–156 | doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2003)029<0139:todosd>2.0.co;2| bibcode = 2003Pbio...29..139Z | s2cid = 85774503 }}</ref> as well as the developmental origins of developmental stability, canalization and modularity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hallgrímsson | first1 = B. | last2 = Brown | first2 = J. J. Y. | last3 = Ford-Hutchinson | first3 = A. F. | last4 = Sheets | first4 = H. D. | last5 = Zelditch | first5 = M. L. | last6 = Jirik | first6 = F. R. | year = 2006 | title = The brachymorph mouse and the developmental-genetic basis for canalization and morphological integration | url =https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/71779/1/j.1525-142X.2006.05075.x.pdf | journal = Evolution & Development | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 61–73 | doi=10.1111/j.1525-142x.2006.05075.x| pmid = 16409383 | hdl = 2027.42/71779 | s2cid = 42887577 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hallgrímsson | first1 = B. | last2 = Lieberman | first2 = D. E. | last3 = Liu | first3 = W. | last4 = Ford-Hutchinson | first4 = A. F. | last5 = Jirik | first5 = F. R. | year = 2007 | title = Epigenetic interactions and the structure of phenotypic variation in the cranium | url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3716667| journal = Evolution & Development | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 76–91 | doi=10.1111/j.1525-142x.2006.00139.x| pmid = 17227368 | s2cid = 14230925 | type = Submitted manuscript | url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Klingenberg | first1 = C. P. | last2 = Mebus | first2 = K. | last3 = Auffray | first3 = J. C. | year = 2003 | title = Developmental integration in a complex morphological structure: how distinct are the modules in the mouse mandible? | journal = Evolution & Development | volume = 5 | issue = 5| pages = 522–531 | doi=10.1046/j.1525-142x.2003.03057.x| pmid = 12950630 | s2cid = 17447408 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Klingenberg | first1 = C. P. | last2 = Zaklan | first2 = S. D. | year = 2000 | title = Morphological integration between developmental compartments in the ''Drosophila'' wing | journal = Evolution | volume = 54 | issue = 4| pages = 1273–1285 | doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00560.x| pmid = 11005294 | s2cid = 221539997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Ashleigh F.|last2=Bardua |first2=Carla |last3=Gower |first3=David J. |last4=Wilkinson |first4=Mark |last5=Sherratt |first5=Emma |last6=Goswami |first6=Anjali |title=High-density three-dimensional morphometric analyses support conserved static (intraspecific) modularity in caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) crania|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=126|issue=4|pages=721–742|date=2019|doi=10.1093/biolinnean/blz001|doi-access=free |hdl=2440/123277 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Many other applications of shape analysis in ecology and evolutionary biology can be found in the introductory text: {{cite book|last1= Zelditch | first1= ML |last2= Swiderski |first2= DL |last3= Sheets|first3= HD|title =Geometric Morphometrics for Biologists: A Primer|year=2012| publisher =Elsevier: Academic Press |place=London }} ===Neuroimaging=== {{main|Brain morphometry}} In [[neuroimaging]], the shape and structure of the brains of living creatures can be measured using [[Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain|magnetic resonance imaging]]. The most common variants are [[voxel-based morphometry]], which measures the volume of brain structures, [[deformation-based morphometry]], which measures differences in shape from a template brain, and [[surface-based morphometry]] which quantifies the shape of the [[cerebral cortex]]. {{Expand section|date=June 2008}} ===Bone histomorphometry=== Histomorphometry of bone involves obtaining a [[Trephine|bone biopsy specimen]] and processing of bone specimens in the laboratory, obtaining estimates of the proportional volumes and surfaces occupied by different components of bone. First the bone is broken down by baths in highly concentrated [[ethanol]] and [[acetone]]. The bone is then embedded and [[staining|stained]] so that it can be visualized/analyzed under a [[microscope]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Revell PA |title=Histomorphometry of bone |journal=J. Clin. Pathol. |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1323–31 |date=December 1983 |pmid=6361070 |pmc=498562 |doi= 10.1136/jcp.36.12.1323}}</ref> Obtaining a bone biopsy is accomplished by using a bone biopsy trephine.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Hodgson SF |last2= Johnson |first2= KA |last3= Muhs |first3= JM |last4= Lufkin |first4= EG |last5= McCarthy |first5= JT |title=Outpatient percutaneous biopsy of the iliac crest: methods, morbidity, and patient acceptance |journal=Mayo Clin Proc |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=28–33 |date=January 1986 |pmid= 3941566 |doi=10.1016/s0025-6196(12)61395-0}}</ref>
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