Editing Permaculture (section)

== Common practices ==

=== Hügelkultur ===

[[File:Sketch of Hugelkulture bed in cross section.jpg|thumb|Sketch of a Hügelkultur bed]]

[[Hügelkultur]] is the practice of burying wood to increase soil water retention. The porous structure of wood acts like a sponge when decomposing underground. During the rainy season, sufficient buried wood can absorb enough water to sustain crops through the dry season.<ref>Wheaton, Paul. [http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ "Raised garden beds: hugelkultur instead of irrigation"] Richsoil. Retrieved 15 July 2012.</ref>{{Sfn|Hemenway|2009|pp=84–85}}<ref>Feineigle, Mark. [http://permaculture.org.au/2012/01/04/hugelkultur-composting-whole-trees-with-ease/#more-6825 "Hugelkultur: Composting Whole Trees With Ease"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928110713/http://permaculture.org.au/2012/01/04/hugelkultur-composting-whole-trees-with-ease/#more-6825 |date=28 September 2015 }}. Permaculture Research Institute of Australia. Retrieved 15 July 2012.</ref> This technique is a traditional practice that has been developed over centuries in Europe and has been recently adopted by permaculturalists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon Glore |first=Angela |date=2014 |title=A worldwide tour of (almost) permaculture |url=https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:G3R1P9vwzr4J:scholar.google.com/+H%C3%BCgelkultur+permaculture&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 |journal=Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development |volume=5 |pages=151}}</ref> The Hügelkultur technique can be implemented through building mounds on the ground as well as in [[Raised-bed gardening|raised garden beds]]. In raised beds, the practice "imitates natural [[nutrient cycling]] found in wood decomposition and the high water-holding capacities of organic detritus, while also improving bed structure and drainage properties." This is done by placing wood material (e.g. logs and sticks) in the bottom of the bed before piling organic soil and compost on top. A study comparing the water retention capacities of Hügel raised beds to non-Hügel beds determined that Hügel beds are both lower maintenance and more efficient in the long term by requiring less irrigation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laffoon |first1=Megan |last2=Meier |first2=Albert |last3=Groves |first3=Chris |date=2015 |title=Potential Application of Hugelkultur to Increase Water Holding Capacity of Karst Rocky Desertified Lands |url=https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=nckms |journal=National Cave and Karst Management Symposium |volume=21 |pages=9–11}}</ref>

=== Sheet mulching ===

{{main|Sheet mulching}}

{{multiple image
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|image1=Préparation d'une lasagne.jpg
|caption1=Preparation of a [[Sheet mulching|sheet mulch]] 
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|caption2=Tomato plants growing on a "lasagna" or sheet mulch
}}

Mulch is a protective cover placed over soil. Mulch material includes leaves, cardboard, and wood chips. These absorb rain, reduce evaporation, provide nutrients, increase soil organic matter, create habitat for soil organisms, suppress weed growth and seed germination, moderate diurnal temperature swings, protect against frost, and reduce erosion.<ref name="agroforestry"/> [[Sheet mulching]] or lasagna gardening<ref>{{cite web |last1=Toensmeier |first1=Eric |title=Sheet Mulching in 9 Easy Steps |url=https://www.permaculture.co.uk/articles/sheet-mulching-in-9-easy-steps/ |website=Permaculture.co.uk |date=24 November 2022 |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref> is a gardening technique that attempts to mimic the leaf cover that is found on forest floors.<ref name="agroforestry">{{cite web |date=3 September 2011 |title=Sheet Mulching: Greater Plant and Soil Health for Less Work |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/Sheet_Mulching.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021210053204/http://www.agroforestry.net/pubs/Sheet_Mulching.html |archive-date=10 December 2002 |access-date=21 October 2011 |publisher=Agroforestry }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stratton |first1=Margie Lynn |last2=Barker |first2=Allen |last3=Ragsdale |first3=James |date=April 2000 |title=Sheet composting overpowers weeds in restoration project |journal=BioCycle |volume=41 |issue=4 |page=57}}</ref>

=== No-till gardening ===

{{further|No-dig gardening}}
{{distinguish|No-till farming}}

Edward Faulkner's 1943 book ''Plowman's Folly'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faulkner |first1=Edward |title=Plowman's Folly |date=1943 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |oclc=563317}}</ref> King's 1946 pamphlet "Is Digging Necessary?",<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=F. C.|title=Is Digging Necessary?|publisher=[[New Times Media|New Times]]|year=1946 |url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/135484}}</ref> A. Guest's 1948 book "Gardening without Digging",<ref>{{cite book|last=Guest|first=A.|title=Gardening without Digging|publisher=Wigfield|year=1948}}</ref> and Fukuoka's "[[Do Nothing Farming]]" all advocated forms of no-till or no-dig gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://oceanofpdf.com/authors/masanobu-fukuoka/pdf-epub-the-one-straw-revolution-an-introduction-to-natural-farming-download/ |title=Resource: The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming |access-date=2023-07-30| work=oceanofpdf.com}}</ref><!--https://empressofdirt.net/history-no-dig-gardening/ useful but not citable--> No-till gardening seeks to minimise disturbance to the soil community so as to maintain soil structure and organic matter.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/building-fertile-soil-zmaz03jjzgoe/ |title=Michael Rothman, Building Fertile Soil |work=www.motherearthnews.com| access-date=2023-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/soilmgmt.html |title=Preston Sullivan, NCAT Agriculture Specialist, ''Sustainable Soil Management'' |access-date=2009-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305021221/http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/soilmgmt.html |archive-date=2009-03-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Cropping practices ===

{{further|Crop rotation|Intercropping|Companion planting}}

Low-effort permaculture favours [[perennial crop]]s which do not require tilling and planting every year. [[Annual crop]]s inevitably require more cultivation. They can be incorporated into permaculture by using traditional techniques such as [[crop rotation]], [[intercropping]], and [[companion planting]] so that pests and weeds of individual annual crop species do not build up, and minerals used by specific crop plants do not become successively depleted.<ref name="Engels 2016">{{cite web |last1=Engels |first1=Jonathon |title=How and Why to Rotate Your Annual Crops |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2016/11/18/rotate-annual-crops/ |website=Permaculture Research Institute |access-date=18 October 2023 |date=18 November 2016}}</ref>

Companion planting aims to make use of beneficial interactions between species of cultivated plants.<ref name="Ludwig-Cooper 2011">{{cite web |last=Ludwig-Cooper |first=Stephanie |title=Companion Planting Information and Chart |date=2 December 2011 |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2011/12/02/companion-planting-information-and-chart/ |website=Permaculture News |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref> Such interactions include [[pest control]], [[pollination]], providing habitat for [[beneficial insect]]s, and maximizing use of space; all of these may help to increase productivity.<ref name="mcclure">{{cite web |last=McClure |first=Susan |year=1995 |title=Companion Planting Made Easy |website=Hpfb.org |pages=4–6 |url=https://www.hpfb.org/uploads/companionplanting.pdf |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082558/https://www.hpfb.org/uploads/companionplanting.pdf |url-status=dead }} excerpted from {{cite book |last=McClure |first=Susan |year=1994 |title=Companion Planting |publisher=[[Rodale, Inc.|Rodale Press]] |isbn=978-0-87596-616-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/companionplantin0000mccl }}</ref>

=== Rainwater harvesting ===

{{further|Rainwater harvesting}}

[[File:Rainwater Collection.JPG|thumb|Rainwater collection is a common practice of permaculture.]]

[[Rainwater harvesting]] is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse before it runs off or reaches the [[aquifer]].<ref name="Rainwater harvesting">{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=Rainwater harvesting |url=http://aramo.de/rain.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130606063516/http://aramo.de/rain.html |archive-date=6 June 2013 |access-date=19 August 2015 |publisher=Aramo |place=Germany }}</ref> It has been used to provide [[drinking water]], water for livestock, and water for [[irrigation]], as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rainwater harvesting: regulatory position statement |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/rainwater-harvesting-regulatory-position-statement/rainwater-harvesting-regulatory-position-statement |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=GOV.UK }}</ref> and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It can supplement the water table and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are specially prepared for this purpose, is called [[stormwater harvesting]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stormwater harvesting {{!}} Melbourne Water |url=https://www.melbournewater.com.au/building-and-works/stormwater-management/stormwater-harvesting#:~:text=Stormwater%20harvesting%20involves%20collecting,%20treating,from%20drains%20rather%20than%20roofs. |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.melbournewater.com.au}}</ref>

[[Greywater]] is [[wastewater]] generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled for uses such as landscape irrigation and [[constructed wetland]]s. Greywater is largely sterile, but not [[potable]] (drinkable).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greywater Recycling |url=https://www.thegreenage.co.uk/tech/greywater-recycling/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=TheGreenAge|date=14 April 2013 }}</ref>

[[Keyline design]] is a technique for maximizing the beneficial use of water resources. It was developed in Australia by farmer and engineer [[P. A. Yeomans]]. ''Keyline'' refers to a [[contour line]] extending in both directions from a keypoint. Plowing above and below the keyline provides a watercourse that directs water away from a purely downhill course to reduce erosion and encourage infiltration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yeomas |first=P.A |title=The Keyline plan |publisher=Authour |year=1954 |location=Australia |pages=120}}</ref> It is used in designing drainage systems.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tipping |first=Don |date=4 January 2013 |title=Creating Permaculture Keyline Water Systems |publisher=Beaver State Permaculture |location=UK |type=video |url=http://www.permaculture.co.uk/videos/creating-permaculture-keyline-water-systems-don-tipping}}</ref>

=== Compost production ===

[[File:Worm.bin.jpg|thumb|Healthy population of [[red wiggler]]s in a vermicomposting bin]]

[[Vermicompost]]ing is a common practice in permaculture. The practice involves using [[earthworm]]s, such as [[red wiggler]]s, to break down [[Green waste|green]] and [[brown waste]]. The worms produce worm castings, which can be used to [[Organic fertilizer|organically fertilize]] the garden. Worms are also introduced to garden beds, helping to [[Soil aeration|aerate the soil]] and improve [[Permeability of soils|water retention]]. Worms may multiply quickly if provided conditions are ideal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beyers |first1=R |last2=MacLean |first2=S |title=Developing an educational curriculum for organic farming and permaculture in theDistrict of Santa Fe |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/pfss/files/pfss/developing_an_educational_curriculum_for.pdf |journal=La Foundación Héctor Gallego |pages=16 |quote=All the permaculture farms we visited had large, fully-functioning vermicompost which produced fertilizer that was naturally rich in nutrients and acid that was used as a substance for fumigation instead of synthetic based substances.}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Reza |first=Shamim |date=24 March 2016 |title=Vermicomposting – A Great Way to Turn the Burdens into Resources |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2016/03/24/vermicomposting-a-great-way-to-turn-the-burdens-into-resources/ |publisher=Permaculture Research Institute}}</ref> For example, a permaculture farm in [[Cuba]] began with 9 [[tiger worm]]s in 2001 and 15 years later had a population of over 500,000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de la Vega |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Vermicomposting: The Future of Sustainable Agriculture and Organic Waste Management |url=https://www.pcc.edu/sustainability/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2017/10/DeLaVega_VermicompostChurchillReport2016Final.pdf |journal=Winston Churchill Report |pages=29–31}}</ref> The worm castings are particularly useful as part of a seed starting mix and regular fertilizer. Worm castings are reportedly more successful than conventional compost for seed starting.<ref name=":12" />

[[Sewage]] or [[Blackwater (waste)|blackwater]] contains [[human waste|human or animal waste]]. It can be [[compost]]ed, producing [[biogas]] and manure. Human waste can be sourced from a [[composting toilet]], [[outhouse]] or dry bog (rather than a plumbed toilet).<ref name="Tilley Ulrich 2014">{{cite book |last1=Tilley |first1=E. |last2=Ulrich |first2=L. |last3=Lüthi |first3=C. |last4=Reymond |first4=Ph. |last5=Zurbrügg |first5=C. |title=Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies |edition=2nd Revised  |year=2014 |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) |location=Duebendorf, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-906484-57-0 |page=10 |url=http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/}}</ref> <!-- This can be surrounded by trees, which in turn can be [[Coppicing|coppiced]] for wood fuel.-->

=== Economising on space ===

{{further|Herb spiral}}

[[File:Kräuterspirale.JPG|thumb|A [[herb spiral]] provides varied conditions in a small space for multiple species to grow together.]]

Space can be saved in permaculture gardens with techniques such as [[herb spiral]]s which group plants closely together. A herb spiral, invented by Mollison, is a round cairn of stones packed with earth at the base and sand higher up; sometimes there is a small pond on the south side (in the northern hemisphere). The result is a series of [[microclimate]] zones, wetter at the base, drier at the top, warmer and sunnier on the south side, cooler and drier to the north. Each herb is planted in the zone best suited to it.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Engels |first1=Jonathon |title=The Magic and Mystery of Constructing a Herb Spiral and Why Every Suburban Lawn Should Have One |url=https://www.permaculturenews.org/2015/04/17/the-magic-and-mystery-of-constructing-an-herb-spiral-and-why-every-suburban-lawn-should-have-one/ |website=Permaculture News |publisher=Permaculture Research Institute |access-date=9 September 2023 |date=17 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Advantages of an Herb Spiral |url=https://theherbexchange.com/advantages-of-an-herb-spiral/ |website=The Herb Exchange |date=12 July 2018 |publisher=The Growers Exchange |access-date=9 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Domesticated animals ===
{{see also|Rice-duck farming}}

[[File:Garden chicks and herbs - Flickr - hardworkinghippy , La Ferme de Sourrou.jpg|thumb|Chicken roaming in an herb garden]]

[[List of domesticated animals|Domesticated animals]] are often incorporated into site design.{{sfn|Mollison|1988|p=5|ps=: '[[Deer]], rabbits, sheep, and [[herbivorous]] fish are very useful to us, in that they convert unusable herbage to acceptable human food. Animals represent a valid method of storing inedible vegetation as food.'}}<ref name="permaculture.org">{{Cite web |title=Backyard Animals |url=http://www.permaculture.org/resources/backyard-animals/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217221136/http://www.permaculture.org/resources/backyard-animals/ |archive-date=17 December 2014 |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=Permaculture.org}}</ref> Activities that contribute to the system include: foraging to cycle nutrients, clearing fallen fruit, weed maintenance, spreading seeds, and pest maintenance. Nutrients are cycled by animals, transformed from their less digestible form (such as grass or twigs) into more nutrient-dense manure.<ref name="permaculture.org" />

Multiple animals can contribute, including cows, goats, chickens, geese, turkey, rabbits, and worms. An example is chickens who can be used to scratch over the soil, thus breaking down the [[topsoil]] and using fecal matter as manure. Factors such as timing and habits are critical. For example, animals require much more daily attention than plants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2016 |title=Permaculture Animals as a Discipline to the System |url=http://permaculturenews.org/2016/03/07/permaculture-animals-as-a-discipline-to-the-system/ |access-date=6 April 2017 |website=The Permaculture Research Institute}}</ref>

=== Fruit trees ===

[[Masanobu Fukuoka]] experimented with no-pruning methods on his family farm in Japan, finding that trees which were never pruned could grow well, whereas previously-pruned trees often died when allowed to grow without further pruning.<ref name="Natural Way Farming-Pruning">{{Citation |last=Masanobu |first=Fukuoka |title=The Natural Way of Farming – The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy |page=204 |year=1987 |orig-year=1985 |edition=rev |place=Tokyo |publisher=Japan Publications}}</ref>{{sfn|Fukuoka|1978|pp=13, 15–18, 46, 58–60}} He felt that this reflected the [[Tao]]-philosophy of [[Wu wei|Wú wéi]], meaning no action against nature or "do-nothing" farming. He claimed yields comparable to intensive arboriculture with pruning and chemical fertilisation.<ref name="Natural Way Farming-Pruning"/><!--{{sfn|Fukuoka|1978}}--><ref name="Ramon Magsaysay Award-Bio">{{Citation |title=Public Service |year=1988 |type=biography |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115211020/http://www.rmaf.org.ph/Awardees/Biography/BiographyFukuokaMas.htm |contribution=Masanobu Fukuoka |contribution-url=http://www.rmaf.org.ph/Awardees/Biography/BiographyFukuokaMas.htm |place=[[Philippines]] |publisher=The Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation |access-date=27 November 2013 |archive-date=15 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}.</ref>