Editing Punic language (section)

==Grammar==
In this section "Grammar"<ref>Based on {{cite book |last1=Krahmalkov |first1=Charles R. |title=A Phoenician-Punic Grammar (Handbuch der Orientalistik, Vol. 54) |date=2001 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-1-62837-031-7}} (reprint Atlanta, SBL, 2014).</ref> the notation ''"'''XX''' (xxxx)"'' is used, where '''''XX''''' is the spelling in Punic characters (without vowels), while ''xxxx'' is a phonetic rendering, including vowels, as can be reconstructed from Punic language texts written in the Latin or Greek alphabets.

=== Nouns ===
Nouns, including adjectives, in Punic and Neo-Punic can be of two genders (masculine or feminine), three numbers (singular, dual, or plural), and in two 'states', the absolute state or the so-called construct state. A word in the construct state has a close relation with the word that follows, a relation that is often translated by "of". For example, in the combination "sons of Hanno", "sons of" would be in the construct state, while "Hanno" would be in the absolute state.

Morphology:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
!  !!  !! masculine !! (example) !! feminine !! colspan="2" | (examples)
|-
| rowspan="2" | Singular || absolute state || rowspan="2" align="center" | -Ø || '' '''BN''' (bin)'', 'son' || rowspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-T, -’T ''' (-ot, -ut, -īt)'' || '' '''BT''' (bit)'', 'daughter' ||
|-
| construct state || '' '''BN''' (bin)'', 'son of' || '' '''BT, B‘T''' (bit)'', 'daughter of' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | Dual || absolute state || align="center" | '' '''-M''' (-ēm)'' || align="center" |   || align="center" | '' '''-M''' (-ēm)'' || || [''YD'', 'hand':] '' '''YDM''' (yadēm)'', 'two hands' 
|-
| construct state || align="center" | -Ø ''(-ē)'' ||  || align="center" | -Ø ''(-ē)'' || || [''‘YN, ‘N'', 'eye':] '' '''‘N''' (‘ēnē)'', '[two] eyes of'
|-
| rowspan="2" | Plural || absolute state || align="center" | '' '''-M, -’M, -YM''' (-īm, -ēm)'' || '' '''BNM''' (banīm)'', 'sons' || rowspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-T, -’T''' (-ūt)'' || '' '''BNT''' (banūt)'', 'daughters' ||
|-
| construct state || align="center" | -Ø ''(-ē)'' || '' '''BN’''' (b<sup>e</sup>nē)'', 'sons of' || '' '''BNT''' (banūt)'', 'daughters of' ||
|}

=== Pronouns ===

==== Demonstrative pronoun ====
The demonstrative pronoun 'this, these' was:<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 75-85.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
!  !! Masculine !! Feminine !! !!
|-
| rowspan="2" | Singular || align="center" | '' '''Z, ’Z''', (<sup>e</sup>zdē)''; || align="center" | '' '''Z''' (<sup>e</sup>zdō)''; || (Punic) || rowspan="2" | (cf. Hebrew ''zèh'', fem. ''zōt'')
|-
| align="center" | '' '''S''' (si)''; <br>'' '''ST''' (sit)'' || align="center" | '' '''Š’''' (sō, sū)''; <br>'' '''ST''' (sōt)'' || (Neo-Punic)
|-
| Plural || colspan="2" align="center" |  '' '''’L, ’L’''' (’llē)'' || (Punic and Neo-Punic) || (cf. Hebrew ''’ēllèh'')
|}

===== Definite article =====
The definite article was evolving from Phoenician ''ha-'' to an unaspirated article ''a-''. By 406 BCE, both variants were attested in the same inscription ([[Agrigentum inscription|CIS I 5510]]). Although in later times the ''h-'' was no longer pronounced, the "historical" spelling '''''H-''''' kept being used, in addition to '''''’-''''' and Ø-, and one even finds '''''Ḥ-'''''.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), p. 85-92.</ref>

==== Personal pronoun ====
The personal pronouns, when used on their own, are:<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 38-49.</ref> (forms between [...] are attested in Phoenician only)

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
!  !! colspan="4" | Singular !! colspan="4" | Plural
|-
|  || align="center" | '''masculine''' || align="center" | '''feminine''' || || (cf. Hebrew:) || align="center" | '''masculine''' || align="center" | '''feminine''' || || (cf. Hebrew:)
|-
| 1st person || colspan="2" align="center" | '' '''’NK, ’NKY''' (’anīki, ’anīk)'' || = 'I, I myself' || ''’ānokí'' || colspan="2" align="center" | ['' '''(’)NḤN''' ((’a)náḥnu)'' ] || = 'we' || ''’anáḥnū''
|-
| 2nd person || align="center" | '' '''’T''' (’átta)'' || align="center" | ['' '''’T''' (’atti)'' ] || = 'you' (singular) || ''’attā(h); ’at'' || align="center" | '' '''’TM''' (’attím)'' || align="center" | ? || = 'you' (plural) || ''’attèm; ’attēn''
|-
| 3rd person || align="center" | '' '''H’''' (hū, ū)'' || align="center" | '' '''H’, HY''' (hī)'' || = 'he, she' || ''hū; hī'' || colspan="2" align="center" | '' '''HMT''' (hēmat?)'' || = 'they' || ''hēmmā(h); hēnnā(h)''
|}

When used as a direct or indirect object ('me, him', 'to me, to him') or as a possessive ('mine, his') the personal pronoun takes the form of a suffix. These suffixes can be combined with verbal forms, substantives, and paricles.

Examples:
: '' '''ḤN''' (ḥan)'' = (verb:) 'he has shown favor' →
:: '' '''ḤN’''' (ḥannō)'' = 'he has shown favor to him (-ō)' = proper name [[Hanno I the Great|Hanno]]
:: '' '''ḤNYB‘L''' (ḥannī ba‘al)'' = (verb:) 'Ba‘al has shown favor to me (-ī)' = proper name [[Hannibal]]

: '' '''BN''' (bin)'' = 'son' →
:: '' '''BN’, BNY''' (binō)'' = 'his son'

: '' '''’T''' (’et)'' = 'with' (preposition) →
:: '' '''’TY''' (’ittī)'' = 'together with me'

The paradigm for the suffixed personal pronouns is:<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 50-74.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! colspan="2" | !! colspan="4" | Singular !! colspan="4" | Plural
|-
| colspan="2" |  || align="center" | '''masculine''' || align="center" | '''feminine''' || || (cf. Hebrew:) || align="center" | '''masculine''' || align="center" | '''feminine''' || || (cf. Hebrew:)
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1st person || (possessive) || colspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-Y''' (-ī)'' || = 'mine' || ''-ī'' || rowspan="2" colspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-N''' (-en, -on)'' || rowspan="2" | = 'us, our' || rowspan="2" | ''-nû''
|-
| (object) || colspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-NY''' (-ni)'' || = 'me' || ''-ni''
|-
| colspan="2" | 2nd person || align="center" | '' '''-K, -K’''' (-ka)'' || align="center" | '' '''-KY, -K''' (-kī)'' || = '(to) you, your' (singular) || ''-ka; -k'' || align="center" | '' '''-KM''' (-kom)'' || align="center" | ''?'' || = '(to) you, your' (plural) || ''-kem''
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | 3rd person || align="center" | '' '''-’, -‘, -‘’''' (-o);<br>'''-'''Ø''', -Y, -Y’''' (-yo)'' || align="center" | '' '''-’, -‘, -‘’''' (-a); <br>''' -Y‘''' (-ya)'' || rowspan="3" | = 'him, his; her' || ''-o; -āh'' || align="center" | '' '''-M''' (-om);'' || align="center" | '' '''-M''' (-am)'' || rowspan="3" | = 'them, their' || rowspan="3" | ''-ām, -ēm; -ān''
|-
| align="center" | '' '''-'''Ø''', -Y, -’, -’Y''' <br>(-i)'' [< ''-ih(u)''] || align="center" | '' '''-Y''' (-i)'' || ''-hu; -hā'' || rowspan="2" align="center" | '' '''-NM, -N’M, -NHM''' <br>(-nom)''
|-
| align="center" | '' '''-M''' (-im)'' || align="center" | || —
|}

==== Relative pronoun ====
The relative pronoun, 'who, that, which', in both Punic and Neo-Punic is’ '''''Š ('''’īs''). In late Neo-Punic ''' ''M’'' ''' (''mū'') (originally an interrogative pronoun, 'what?') emerged as a second relative pronoun. Both pronouns were not inflected. The combination ''' ''’Š M’'' ''' (''’īs mū'') was also used in late Neo-Punic.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 93-103, 110-111.</ref>

==== Determinative pronoun ====
A pronoun '''''Š- ('''si-'') was used to express an indirect genitival relationship between two substantives; it can be translated as 'of'. This uninflected pronoun was prefixed to the second of the two substantives.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 103-107.</ref> Example:
: '''''HKHNT ŠRBTN''''' (''ha-kohènet si-Rabat-ēn''), 'the priestess of our Lady'

==== Interrogative pronoun ====
There are two interrogative pronouns:<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 108-111.</ref>
: '' '''MY''' (mī)'', 'who?' (cf. Hebrew ''mī'')
: '' '''M’''' (mū)'', 'what?' (cf. Hebrew ''māh''). In Neo-Punic this pronoun is also used as a relative pronoun, 'that, which'.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 110-111.</ref>
Neither of the two pronouns was inflected.

==== Indefinite pronoun ====
In Punic and Neo-Punic there was no exclusive indefinite pronoun. Whenever such a pronoun might be needed, it was circumscribed by means of words like '' '''’ḤD''' (’ḥḥad)'', 'one', '' '''’Š''' (’īs)'' or '' '''’DM''' (’adom)'', 'a man, a person', or '' '''KL''' (kil)'', 'all'.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 115-119.</ref>

=== Verbs ===
==== Morphology ====
The nucleus of Punic and Neo-Punic verbs is a "root" consisting of three or, sometimes, two consonants. By adding prefixes and suffixes, and by varying the vowels that are inserted into the root, the various forms of the verb are formed. These belong to six "stems" (conjugations). The basic, and most common, stem type is the Qal. The other common stems are:<ref>For a full discussion of verbal morphology, see: Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 151-214.</ref>
* Niph‘al (the usual passive stem);
* Pi‘el (a so-called [[intensive word form|intensive]] stem);
* Yiph‘il (a [[causative]] stem; corresponds to the Hiph‘il stem in [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]]).
A few other stems are found only very rarely:
* Qal Passive;
* Pu‘al (passive of the Pi‘el stem);
* Yitpe‘el (reflexive variant of the Pi‘el; Hebrew Hitpa‘el).

===== Qal =====
The paradigm of the Qal is (the verb ''' ''B-R-K'' ''' (''barok''), 'to bless', is used as an example):
: (note 1:) “the verb ''barok''”: ''barok'' literally means '<u>he</u> blesses', it is tradition to consider the 3rd person masculine suffixing form as the standard form of the Punic verb;
: (note 2:) Forms between [...] are known from Phoenician but have not yet been attested in Punic.

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! colspan="4" | Form !! (Neo-)Punic !! Translation !! (cf. Hebrew)
|-
| rowspan="9" valign="top" | '''Perfect'''<br>(Suffixing<br>form) || rowspan="5" valign="top" | Singular || 1 ||  || ''' ''BRKT'' ''' (''barakti'') || = 'I bless' || ''beràkti''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | 2 || masc. || ''' ''BRKT'' ''' (''barakta'') || = 'you (m.) bless' || ''berákta''
|-
| fem. || [''' ''BRKT'' ''' (''barakti'') ] || = 'you (f.) bless' || ''berákt''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | 3 || masc. || ''' ''BRK'' ''' (''barok'') || = 'he blesses'' || ''berek''~''berák''
|-
| fem. || ''' ''BRK, BRK’, BRK‘'' ''' (''berka'') || = 'she blesses' || ''berkāh''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | Plural || 1 ||  || ''' ''BRKN'' ''' (''baraknu'') || = 'we bless' || ''beràknū''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | 2 || masc. || ''' ''BRKTM'' ''' (''b<sup>i</sup>raktim'') || = 'you (m. pl.) bless' || ''beraktèm''
|-
| fem. || ''— (not attested)'' || 'you (f.) bless' || ''beraktèn''
|-
|  | 3 ||  || ''' ''BRK'' ''' (''barkū'') || = 'they bless' || ''berkū''
|-
| rowspan="12" valign="top" | '''Imperfect'''<br>(Prefixing<br>form A)<br>and<br>'''Iussive'''<br>(Prefixing<br>form B) || rowspan="5" valign="top" | Singular || 1 ||  || ''' ''’BRK'' ''' (''’ebrok, ’ibrok'') || = 'I will bless, let me bless' || ''’ávàrek''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | 2 || masc. || ''' ''TBRK'' ''' (''tibrok'') || = 'you (m.) will bless, may you (m.) bless' || ''t<sup>e</sup>vàrek''
|-
| fem. || [''' ''TBRKY'' ''' (''tibrokī'') ] || = 'you (f.) will bless, may you (f.) bless' || ''t<sup>e</sup>vàrkī''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | 3 || masc. || ''' ''YBRK'' ''' (''yibrok'') || = 'he will bless, may he bless' || ''y<sup>e</sup>vàrek''
|-
| fem. || [''' ''TBRK'' ''' (''tibrok'') ] || = 'she will bless, may she bless' || ''t<sup>e</sup>vàrek''
|-
| rowspan="7" valign="top" | Plural || 1 ||  || ''' ''NBRK'' ''' (''nibrok'') || = 'we will bless, let us bless' || ''n<sup>e</sup>vàrek''
|-
| rowspan="3" valign="top" | 2 || rowspan="2" valign="top" | masc. || ''' ''TBRKN'' ''' (''tibrakūn'') || = 'you (m. pl.) will bless' (''imperfect'') || rowspan="2" | ''t<sup>e</sup>vàrkū''
|-
| ''' ''TBRK'' ''' (''tibrokū'') || = 'may you (m. pl.) bless' (''iussive'')
|-
| fem. || ''' ''YBRK'' ''' (''yibrok'') || = 'you (f. pl.) will bless, may you (f.) bless' || ''t<sup>e</sup>vàreknāh''
|-
| rowspan="3" valign="top" | 3 || rowspan="2" valign="top" | masc. || [ ''' ''YBRKN'' ''' (''yibrokūn'') ] || = 'they (m.) will bless' (''imperfect'') || rowspan="2"| ''y<sup>e</sup>vàrkū''
|-
| ''' ''YBRK'' ''' (''yibrokū'') || = 'may they (m.) bless' (''iussive'')
|-
| fem. || ''— (not attested)'' || 'they (f.) will bless, may they (f.) bless' || ''t<sup>e</sup>vàreknāh''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''Cohortative''' <br>(Prefixing form C) || Singular ||  | 1 ||  || ''— (not attested)'' || 'let me bless!' || ''’ávàrekāh''
|-
| Plural || 1 || || ''— (not attested)'' || 'let us bless!' || ''n<sup>e</sup>vàrekāh''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | '''Imperative''' || rowspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || rowspan="2" valign="top" | 2 || masc. || ''' ''BRK'' ''' (''b<sup>o</sup>rok'') || = 'bless!, you (man) must bless' || ''bàrek''
|-
| fem. || [''' ''BRK'' ''' (''birkī'') ] || = 'bless!, you (woman) must bless' || ''bàrkī''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | Plural || rowspan="2" valign="top" | 2 ||  masc. || ''— (not attested)'' || 'bless!, you (men) must bless' || ''bàrkū''
|-
| fem. || ''— (not attested)'' || 'bless!, you (women) must bless' || ''bàreknāh''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''Infinitive''' || colspan="3" | Infinitive construct || ''' ''L-BRK'' ''' (''li-brūk'') || = 'to bless' || ''l<sup>e</sup>vàrek''
|-
| colspan="3" | Infinitive absolute || ''' ''BRK'' ''' (''barōk'') || = 'bless' || ''bàrūk''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | '''Participle'''<br>(active) || rowspan="2" colspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || masc. || ''' ''BRK'' ''' (''būrek'') || = '(a man:) blessing' || ''bàrūk''
|-
| fem. || ''' ''BRKT'' ''' (''būrekt'') || = '(a woman:) blessing' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkāh''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" colspan="2" | Plural ||  masc. || ''' ''BRKM'' ''' (''bōrkīm'') || = '(men:) blessing' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkīm''
|-
| fem. || ''— (not attested)'' || '(women:) blessing' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkōt''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | (passive) || rowspan="2" colspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || masc. || ''— (not attested)'' || '(a man:) blessed' || ''bàrūk''
|-
| fem. || ''' ''BRKT'' ''' (''barūkt'') || = '(a woman:) blessed' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkāh''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" colspan="2" | Plural ||  masc. || ''' ''BRKM'' ''' (''b<sup>e</sup>rūkīm'') || = '(men:) blessed' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkīm''
|-
| fem. || ''— (not attested)'' || '(women:) blessed' || ''b<sup>e</sup>rūkōt''
|}

===== Niph‘al =====
The following Niph‘al forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' '''P-‘-L''', fel'', 'to make'; < Phoenician ''pa‘ol''):

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! colspan="4" | Form !! (Neo-)Punic !! Translation !! (cf. Hebrew)
|-
| rowspan="3" valign="top" | '''Perfect'''<br>(Suffixing<br>form) || rowspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || rowspan="2" valign="top" | 3 || masc. || ''' ''NP‘L'' ''' (''nef‘al'') || = 'it (m.) is/was made' || ''niph‘al''
|-
| fem. || ''' ''NP‘L’'' ''' (''nef‘ala'') || = 'it (f.) is/was made' || ''niph‘<sup>e</sup>lāh''
|-
| Plural || 3 || masc. || ''' ''NP‘L’, NP‘L'' ''' (''nef‘alū'') || = 'they are/were made' || ''niph‘<sup>e</sup>lū''
|}

===== Pi‘el =====
The following Pi‘el forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' '''Ḥ-D-Š''', ḥados'', 'to make new, to restore'):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! colspan="4" | Form !! (Neo-)Punic !! Translation !! (cf. Hebrew)
|-
| rowspan="3" valign="top" | '''Perfect'''<br>(Suffixing<br>form) || rowspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || 1 ||  || ''' ''ḤDŠTY, ḤDŠT'' ''' (''ḥiddesti'') || = 'I restore' || ''ḥiddàšti''
|-
| 3 || masc. || ''' ''ḤYDŠ, ḤDŠ'' ''' (''ḥiddes'') || = 'he restores' || ''ḥiddēš''
|-
| Plural || 3 || masc. || ''' ''ḤDŠ'' ''' (''ḥiddesū'') || = 'they restore' || ''ḥiddēšū''
|-
| '''Imperfect''' || Singular || 3 || masc. || ''' ''YḤDŠ'' ''' (''yeḥeddes'') || = 'he will restore' || ''y<sup>e</sup>ḥaddēš''
|-
| '''Imperative''' || Singular || 2 || masc. || ''' ''ḤDŠ'' ''' (''ḥeddes'') || = 'restore!' || ''ḥaddēš''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' || colspan="3" valign="top" | Infinitive construct || ''' ''L-ḤDŠ'' ''' (''liḥeddes'') || = 'to restore' || ''ḥaddēš''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''Participle''' (active) || colspan="2" | Singular || masc. || ''' ''MḤDŠ'' ''' (''m<sup>e</sup>ḥeddes'') || = 'restoring (man)' || ''m<sup>e</sup>ḥaddēš''
|-
| colspan="2" | Plural || masc. || ''' ''MḤDŠM'' ''' (''m<sup>e</sup>ḥeddesīm'') || = 'restoring (men)' || ''m<sup>e</sup>ḥadd<sup>e</sup>šīm''
|}

===== Yiph‘il =====
The following Yiph‘il forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' '''Q-D-Š''', qados'', 'to dedicate'):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! colspan="4" | Form !! (Neo-)Punic !! Translation !! (cf. Hebrew Hiph‘il)
|-
| rowspan="3" valign="top" | '''Perfect'''<br>(Suffixing<br>form) || rowspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || rowspan="2" valign="top" | 3 || masc. || ''' ''’YQDŠ, YQDŠ'' ''' (''iqdēs'') || = 'he dedicates, has dedicated' || ''hiqdīš''
|-
| fem. || ''' ''HQDYŠ‘'' ''' (''iqdísa'') || = 'she dedicates, has dedicated' || ''hiqdīšāh''
|-
| Plural || 3 || masc. || ''' ''YQDŠ‘'' ''' (''yiqdísū'') || = 'they dedicate, have dedicated' || ''hiqdīšū''
|-
| '''Imperfect''' || Plural || 3 || masc. || ''' ''YQDŠN'' ''' (''yiqdisūn'') || = 'they will dedicate' || ''yaqdišū''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''Cohortative''' || rowspan="2" valign="top" | Singular || 1 ||  || ''' ''’QDŠ'' ''' (''iqdisa'') || = 'let me dedicate' || ''’aqdēš, ’aqd<sup>e</sup>šāh''
|-
| 3 || masc. || ''' ''YQDŠ''(?) ''' (''yiqdisa'') || = 'let him dedicate' || ''yaqdēš''
|-
| '''Imperative''' || Singular || 2 || masc. || ''' ''HQDŠ'' ''' (''iqdes'' or ''aqdes'') || = 'dedicate!' || ''haqdēš''
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | '''Infinitive''' || colspan="3" valign="top" | Infinitive construct || ''' ''L-QDŠ'' ''' (''l-aqdīs'') || = 'to dedicate' || ''haqdīš''
|-
| colspan="3" valign="top" | Infinitive absolute || ''' ''YQDŠ'' ''' (''yeqdes'') || = '(to) dedicate' || ''haqdēš''
|-
| '''Participle''' (active) || colspan="2" | Singular || masc. || ''' ''MYQDŠ, MQDŠ'' ''' (''miqdīs'') || = 'dedicating (man)' || ''maqdīš''
|}

===== Weak verbs =====
Many (Neo-)Punic verbs are "weak": depending on the specific root consonants certain deviations of the standard verbal paradigm occur. For example in the group I-''n'' (verbs with first consonant '''''N-''''') the ''n'' may disappear through [[assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]]. Summary:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! Group !! Example !! Phenomena
|-
| I-''n'' (or {{lang|he|פ״ן}}) || '' '''N-D-R''' (nador)'', 'to vow' || '''''N-''''' can disappear through assimilation
|-
| I-''y'' ({{lang|he|פ״וי}}) || '' '''Y-T-N''' (yaton)'', 'to give' || Yiph‘il > ''yūph‘il''
|-
| III-''y'' ({{lang|he|ל״ה}}) || '' '''B-N-Y''' (bano)'', 'to build' || '''''-Y''''' can disappear
|-
| II-''gem'' ({{lang|he|ע״ע}}) || '' '''Ḥ-N-N''' (ḥan)'', 'to show favor' || second and third root consonant are the same ("[[gemination|geminated]]")
|-
| II-''wy'' ({{lang|he|ע״וי}}) || '' '''K-N''' (kōn)'', 'to be' || two-consonant root; Pi‘el > ''polel''
|}

==== Form and use ====
In Punic there was no one-on-one correlation between form and use. For example, the suffix form (perfect) is often translated by a present tense, but it may also refer to the past or future. [[Tense–aspect–mood|Tense, aspect, and mood]] of verbal forms were determined by syntax, not by morphology.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 151-214, 290-298 (especially 151-154).</ref>

The tense, aspect and mood of a given verbal form may depend on:
# whether the form is part of the main clause, or of a subordinate clause;
# if in a subordinate clause, it may depend on the ''type'' of subordinate clause (for example, conditional, or temporal);
# word order may be important: does the verbal form precede or follow the subject of the clause?;
# it also may depend on a verbal form earlier in the same clause: suffix forms or an infinitive absolute used consecutive to another verbal form, take the same tense, aspect and mood as the preceding form.

=== Numbers ===
The numbers from one to ten are:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
!  !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|-
| (masculine form) || '' '''’ḤD''' <br>(’eḥḥad)'' || '' '''ŠNM''' <br>(snēm)'' || '' '''ŠLŠ, Š‛LŠ''' <br>(salūs)'' || '' '''’RB‛''' <br>(’arba‛)'' || '' '''ḤMŠ''' <br>(ḥames)'' || '' '''ŠŠ, Š’Š''' <br>(ses)'' || '' '''ŠB‛''' <br>(séba‛)'' || '' '''ŠMN, ŠMN’''' <br>(samūne)'' || '' '''TŠ‛''' <br>(tésa‛)'' || '' '''‛ŠR, ‛Š‛R, ‛SR''' <br>(‛asar)''
|-
| (feminine form) || '' '''’ḤT''' <br>(’eḥḥat)'' || '' '''ŠTM''' <br>(stēm)'' || '' '''ŠLŠT''' <br>(salūst)'' || '' '''’RB‛T''' <br>(’arbá‛at)'' || '' '''ḤMŠT''' <br>(ḥamist)'' || '' '''ŠŠT''' <br>(sésit)'' || '' '''ŠB‛T''' <br>(sebá‛at)'' || '' '''ŠMNT''' <br>(samūnīt)'' || '' '''TŠ‛T''' <br>(tisá‛at)'' || '' '''‛ŠRT''' <br>(‛asert)''
|-
| (cf. Hebrew, masc.) || ''’eḥād'' || ''š<sup>e</sup>náyim'' || ''šalóš'' || ''’arbá‛'' || ''ḥamēš'' || ''šēš'' || ''šèba‛'' || ''š<sup>e</sup>monèh'' || ''tēša‛'' || ''‛èśer''
|}

Punic and Neo-Punic take part in the so-called "Semitic [[Polarity of gender|polarity]]": the numbers 3-10 take the feminine form with masculine nouns, and vice versa. Thus with masculine '''''BN''''' (''bin'', 'son') or '''''YM''''' (''yom'', 'day'), numbers take the feminine form ending in '''''-T''''', while with feminine '''''ŠT''''' (''sat'', 'year'), they take the masculine form without '''''-T'''''.<ref>The discussion by Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 215-226, is confusing because he is unclear about the Semitic polarity.</ref> For example:
: '''''‛W’ Š‛NT ‛SR WŠ‛LŠ''' (ḥawa’ sanūt ‛asar w-salūs):''
:: 'He lived (verb '''''Ḥ-W-Y''''', 'to live') thirteen years' ([[Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften|KAI]] 144)

Multiples of ten take the form of a plural (''-īm'') of the word for 10 or 3-9:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
!  !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90
|-
| (both masc. and fem.) || '' '''‛SRM, HŠRM ''' <br>(‛esrīm)'' || '' '''ŠLŠM''' <br>(salūsīm)'' || '' '''’RB‛M, ’RBM''' <br>(’arba‛īm, ’arbīm)'' || '' '''ḤMŠM, ‛MŠM''' <br>(ḥamissīm)'' || '' '''ŠŠM, ŠYŠM''' <br>(sissīm)'' || '' '''ŠB‛M''' <br>(sib‛īm)'' || '' '''ŠMNM’''' <br>(samūnīm)'' || '' '''TŠM, ṬYŠM''' <br>(tissīm)'' || 
|}

One hundred is '''''M’T''''' (''mīt''), its [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] '''''M’TM''''' (''mitēm'') is 200; 1000 is '''''’LP''''' (''’èlef''), and 10,000 is '''''RB’''''' (''ribō'').

=== Particles ===
An important particle is the so-called ''nota objecti'', or [[nota accusativi|accusative particle]], '' '''’YT''' (’et)'' (rarely '' '''’T''';'' usually'' '''T-''' '' before a substantive with definite article or with demonstrative pronoun). It is placed before a substantive and indicates that that substantive is an object in the sentence (mostly a direct object).<ref>Krahmalkov (2001), pp. 281-285.</ref>

=== Syntax ===
Word order in Punic and Neo-Punic can vary, but this variation has its grammatical limits. For example, in a clause with an imperfect prefixing form the subject can either precede or follow the verb. However, as a rule, if the verb precedes it refers to the present, while if the subject precedes, the verb refers to the future.<ref>Krahmalkov (2001) pp. 183-185.</ref>

The repertoire of possible ways in (Neo-)Punic to express a certain combination of tense, aspect, and mood seems to be more restricted than in Phoenician, but at the same time the rules seem to have become less strict.