Editing Quotation (section)

==In spoken discourse==
Traditionally, quotations—more specifically known as direct quotations<ref name="clark" />—have been distinguished from indirect quotations. Direct quotations differ from indirect quotations in that they are reported from the perspective of the experiencer, while indirect quotations are reported from the perspective of the reporting speaker (e.g. "He said: 'I am leaving now'" versus "He said (that) he was leaving immediately"); are free in their syntactic form, while indirect quotations are subject to language-specific structural requirements (e.g. indirect quotations in many [[Indo-European languages]] are required to have the syntactic form of a [[Well-formedness|well-formed]] declarative [[dependent clause|subordinate clause]]); incorporate extralinguistic material and pragmatic markers, while indirect quotations do not. Crucially, direct quotations have a performative aspect (i.e. occur simultaneously with re-enactments of previous behaviours), which indirect quotations lack.<ref name="buch" /><ref name="clark">{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Herbert |last2=Gerrig |first2=Richard |title=Quotations as Demonstrations |journal=Language |date=December 1990 |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=764–805 |doi=10.2307/414729 |jstor=414729 |s2cid=143541258 }}</ref>

Both direct and indirect quotations in spoken discourse are not intended to be [[wikt:verbatim|verbatim]] reproductions of an utterance that has been produced. Instead, direct quotations convey the approximative meaning of such an utterance along with the way in which that utterance was produced. From a [[sociolinguistics|sociolinguistic]] perspective, a direct quotation in spoken discourse can therefore also be defined as "a performance whereby speakers re-enact previous behaviour (speech/thought/sound/voice effect and gesture) while assuming the dramatic role of the original source of this reported behaviour".<ref name="buch">{{cite book |last1=Buchstaller |first1=Isabelle |title=Quotatives: New Trends and Sociolinguistic Implications |date=2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=9780470657188 |edition=1st}}</ref> Indirect quotations are simply paraphrases of something that a reporting speaker heard.<ref name="tracy"/>

===Reasons for using===

Quotations are employed in spoken discourse for many reasons. They are often used by speakers to depict stories and events that have occurred in the past to other [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|interlocutors]]. The speaker does not necessarily have to have been an original participant in the story or event. Therefore, they can quote something that they did not hear firsthand. Quotations are also used to express thoughts that have never been uttered aloud prior to being quoted. For example, while telling a story, a speaker quotes inner thoughts that they had during a specific situation. Finally, speakers use quotations to propose future dialogue for participants in a situation that may take place in the future. For example, two friends talk about their 10-year high school reunion that will take place in the future and propose what they would say. While future dialogue can be proposed for a situation that will likely happen, it can also be based on a situation that will not actually take place. In the latter usage, the proposed dialogue only exists in the conversational context.<ref name="jessie">{{cite journal |last1=Sams |first1=Jessie |title=Quoting the unspoken: An analysis of quotations in spoken discourse |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |date=November 2010 |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=3147–3160 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2010.04.024 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378216610001220 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

The quoted material is usually not a verbatim replication of an utterance that someone originally said. Instead, quotations in spoken discourse reproduce what a speaker wishes to communicate to their recipients; quotations demonstrate something that someone said, the manner in which that person said it, and the current speaker’s feelings about what was said.<ref name="jessie" /><ref name="clark" /> In this way, quotations are an especially effective storytelling device; the speaker is able to give a voice to the protagonists in their stories themselves, which allows the speaker’s audience to experience the situation in the way that the speaker themselves experienced it.<ref name="buch" />

===Form===

In most languages, quotations in spoken discourse are introduced by a [[verbum dicendi|verb of saying]] and a [[pronoun]]. For example, a quotation in English can be introduced by "She said". In some languages, there is a [[discourse marker]] in addition to the verb of saying that functions as verbal quotation marks.<ref name="tracy">{{cite book |editor1-last=Tracy |editor1-first=Karen |title=The international encyclopedia of language and social interaction |date=2015 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=9781118611463 |pages=1272–1276}}</ref> For example, Japanese uses the quotative particle (a type of quotative marker) ''to'' along with the [[grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] verb of saying ''itta'':

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=COM:complementizer
|c1= <ref name="tracy"/>
| ゆき は あなた には 彼女 が 好き '''と''' '''言った'''。
| Yuki wa anata {ni wa} kanojo ga suki '''to''' '''itta'''.
| Yuki TOP you {DAT (TOP)} her NOM like COM said
| "Yuki said that you liked her."
}}

Verbs of saying (known as quotative verbs when used to introduce quotations) and quotative particles are used as quotative markers, which signal quotations in utterances.<ref name="tracy"/> Quotative evidentials are also used in some languages to indicate quoted speech (e.g. [[Cusco Quechua]] spoken in Peru, [[Nanti language|Nanti]] spoken in lowland southeastern Peru, [[Laal language|Laal]] spoken in Chad).<ref name="quechua">{{cite journal |last1=Korotkova |first1=Natasha |title=Evidentials and (relayed) speech acts: hearsay as quotation |journal=Proceedings of SALT 25 |date=2017 |volume=25 |pages=676–694 |doi=10.3765/salt.v25i0.3969|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="nanti">{{cite book |editor1-last=LaPolla |editor1-first=Randy |editor2-last=De Busser |editor2-first=Rik |title=Language Structure and Environment |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=99–103}}</ref><ref name="laal">{{cite web |last1=Lionnet |first1=Florian |title=More than reported speech: Quotative evidentiality in Laal |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~flionnet/papers/Lionnet-WOCAL-Laal-evidential.pdf |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref>

====Quotative markers====
Quotative markers are used to mark a section of an utterance as quoted speech (i.e. a quotation). In oral speech, quotative markers act as quotation marks and often include a verb of saying (e.g. ''say''). A quotative marker usually appears either before or after the reported speech or thought, depending on the [[syntax]] of the language.<ref name="tracy"/> For example, compare the following languages:

=====English=====

In English, the quotative verb ''say'' occurs before the quotation:<ref name="tracy"/>
:: a. She '''said''' "Will you answer the phone, will you answer the phone"<ref name="frederica">Frederica Barbieri. ''Quotative Use in American English'', Journal of English Linguistics, Vol. 33/No.3, September 2005.</ref>

In American English, verbs such as ''be like'', ''go'', and ''be all'' are non-standard quotatives that are commonly used in [[colloquialism|colloquial speech]].<ref name="tracy"/><ref name="adfoolen"/> They are observed in the speech of young people not only in American English, but in other [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of English as well (e.g. ''be like'' in New Zealand English,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=King |first1=Brian |title="All us girls were like euuh!": Conversational work of be like in New Zealand adolescent talk |journal=New Zealand English Journal |date=2010 |volume=24 |pages=17–36 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249335742 |access-date=19 April 2020}}</ref> ''be like'' and ''go'' in [[Glasgow]] English<ref name="adfoolen"/>).<ref name="frederica"/><ref name="adfoolen">{{cite book |editor1-last=Ahrenholz |editor1-first=Bernt |editor2-last=Bredel |editor2-first=Ursula |editor3-last=Klein |editor3-first=Wolfgang |editor4-last=Rost-Roth |editor4-first=Martina |editor5-last=Skiba |editor5-first=Romuald |title=Empirische Forschung und Theoriebildung |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |location=Frankfurt am Main |isbn=978-3-631-56930-6 |pages=117–128}}</ref> Though not semantically considered verbs of saying, they are used to convey the same meaning as such verbs. Like ''say'', ''be like'', ''go'', and ''be all'' occur before the quotation:<ref name="tracy"/>
:: b. I'm '''like''' "I'm so sorry you had to wait"<ref name="frederica"/>
:: c. She '''went''' "Who are you going with?"<ref name="adfoolen"/>
:: d. He''''s all''' "Okay, come with me come with me"<ref name="adfoolen"/>

In conversational speech, the use of ''say'' and ''be like'' occurs at about the same frequency,<ref name="frederica"/> though ''say'' tends to be used in more formal contexts (e.g. office hours between professors and students) and ''be like'' tends to occur in more informal contexts (e.g. a conversation between two young people).<ref name="adfoolen"/>

In African American Vernacular English, ''talkin' 'bout'' occurs as a verb of quotation, introducing both direct and indirect quotes, as in:
:: e. They come '''talkin' 'bout''' they is scared of ''me''!<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=Taylor|date=2016-12-01|title=AAE Talmbout: An Overlooked Verb of Quotation|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol22/iss2/11|journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics|volume=22|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cukor-Avila|first=Patricia|date=2002|title=She say, She go, She be like: Verbs of Quotation over Time in African American Vernacular English|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/2842|journal=American Speech|volume=77|issue=1|pages=3–31|doi=10.1215/00031283-77-1-3|s2cid=143904503|issn=1527-2133|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=====Japanese=====

In Japanese, the quotative particle ''to'' along with the verb of saying ''iu'' (say) occur after the quotation; the conjugated form of ''iu'' (say) is ''itta'':<ref name="tracy"/>

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=COM:complementizer
|c1= <ref name="Coulmas p164"/>
| 太郎 は 晴海　 を 憎んでいる '''と''' '''言った'''。
| Taro wa Harumi o nikundeiru '''to''' '''itta'''.
| Taro TOP Harumi ACC hated COM said
| "Taro said that he hated Harumi." {{lit}} "that 'I hated Harumi'"
}}

The quotative particle ''to'' can also occur with verbs of thinking, such as ''omou'' (think). Like ''to'' and ''iu'' (say),  ''to'' and ''omou'' occur after the quotation.

=====Laal=====

In [[Laal language|Laal]], the quotative evidential ''mɨ́'' is used for non-self quotation<ref name="laal"/> (i.e. quotation in which the speaker quotes someone else, not themself); it is used with a quotative verb ''ɓɨ́lá''. The use of ''mɨ́'' results in an indirect quotation translation. The quotative verb ''bɨ́lá'' occurs before the quotation, while the quotative evidential ''mɨ́'' occurs within the quoted speech ''já mɨ́ nyàg tāā wó'':

{{interlinear |lang=gdm |indent=2 |abbreviations=QEV:quotative evidential
|c1= <ref name="laal"/>
| à<sub>i</sub> '''ɓɨ́lá''' mɨ́ já<sub>*i/j</sub> '''mɨ́''' nyàg tāā wó 
| He '''say''' (say)that I '''QEV''' eat fish NEG
| "He<sub>i</sub> said that I<sub>*i/j</sub> don't/didn't eat fish."
}}

As the above sentence involves a non-self quotation, ''à'' (he) and ''já'' (I) have different indices to show that they refer to different [[referent]]s; only this interpretation is [[well-formedness|well-formed]]. The interpretation in which they share identical indices is ill-formed (i.e. ungrammatical), as indicated by the asterisk.

In addition to quotative markers, speakers also use [[prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] shifts, pauses, pronominal choices, and [[grammatical tense|tense]] to detect the occurrence and boundaries of quotations in spoken utterances.<ref name="tracy"/>

===Syntax===
Different versions of quotative verbs, particles, and evidentials can be used to express the same idea with varying nuances, often to frame how the primary speaker, or the person who is quoting, feels about a quotation. The syntax of quotations varies cross-linguistically. A primary speaker may use the tense and linguistic idiosyncrasies of the speech at the time it was uttered in a quotation, independent from the tense in the main clause in some languages, or use the same tense in both the main clause and quotation in other languages. They will also use [[coreference]]d pronouns to the direct quotation's first-person subject in the main clause: She<sub>x</sub> said, "I<sub>x</sub>..."; they<sub>y</sub> said "we<sub>y</sub> ..." In many languages, the primary speaker may also attempt to quote an utterance in the same language the original speaker used, even if an interlocutor does not understand it; however, it is mainly context-dependent such as when telling stories.<ref name="Evans Canonical">{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Nicholas |title=Canonical Morphology and Syntax |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=Some problems in the typology of quotation: a canonical approach}}</ref><ref name="Klamer report">{{cite journal |last1=Klamer |first1=Marian |title=How report verbs become quote markers and complementisers |journal=Lingua |date=2000 |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=69–98 |doi=10.1016/S0024-3841(99)00032-7|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024384199000327 | access-date=13 April 2020|hdl=1887/18278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="DarcyA Review">{{cite journal |last1=D'Arcy |first1=Alexandra |title=Quotation and advances in understanding syntactic systems |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |date=2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=43–61 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-125220|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Quotative verbs====
Quotative verbs are lexical verbs that indicate the speech, thoughts, or perceptions of the original speaker.<ref name="Evans Canonical"/><ref name="Klamer report"/>

Quotations can be introduced as the complement to a quotative verb or as the head phrase to an adjunct phrase containing a quotative verb in some languages like English and French.<ref name="sdq bonami"/><ref name="DarcyA Review"/>
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! ||Quotation as complement || Quotation as head phrase adjunct <ref name="sdq bonami"/>
|-
| English || Marie said, "My brother has arrived." || "My brother has arrived," Marie said.
|-
| French || Marie a dit, "Mon frère est arrivé." || "Mon frère est arrivé," comme a dit Marie.
|}
English also displays [[verb-second]] (V2) order vestige only in quotation contexts (quotative inversion), requiring the finite verb to appear in the second position of a clause. For example: "No no no" ''says'' Harry.<ref name="DarcyA Review"/>

Direct and indirect quotations are sometimes not distinguishable. Traditionally, English uses an overt complementizer ''that'' after a quotative verb to indicate indirect quotation, but it is also seen to prompt direct quotation in some English varieties like Indian English, Hong Kong English, and Kenyan English.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Hong Kong English || After the movie I just '''said that''' "Oh Frank I cannot walk."<ref name="DarcyA Review"/>
|-
| Indian English || Never a husband '''says that''' "I'll make a cup of tea okay, you sit. I'll make a cup of tea."
|-
| Kenyan English || So Kabuwe Abuwe '''told''' us '''that''' "If it is for wedding I am not going to contribute."
|}[[File:Aaronx was like ix hate you.png|thumb|Quotative verb "be like" in English.]]
The newer quotative verb ''be like'' in English is used to only introduce direct quotations. ''Be like'' includes the use of the demonstrative ''that'', which is null in most English varieties, but can be optionally overt in some varieties like Glasgow English. Dutch's quotative verb ''hebben zoiets van'' has a similar structure to Standard American English in that it has a null demonstrative that precedes the quotation. It differs from the English structures in that it uses an overt quantifier ''zoiets'' to be [[grammaticality|well-formed]].<ref name="haddican et al">{{cite journal |last1=Haddican |first1=William |last2=Zweig |first2=Eytan |last3=Johnson |first3=Daniel Ezra |title=The syntax of be like quotatives |journal=Proceedings of the 29th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics |date=2012 |pages=81–89 |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wccfl/29/paper2690.pdf}}</ref>
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard North American English !! Glasgow English !! Dutch<ref name="haddican et al"/>
|-
| [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [<sub>TP</sub> Ik [<sub>T'</sub> hebben [<sub>DP</sub> '''zoiets''' [<sub>PP</sub> van [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|-
| [[grammaticality|*]][<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''that''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|| [<sub>TP</sub> Aaron [<sub>T'</sub> was [<sub>PP</sub> like [<sub>DP</sub> '''that''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] || [[grammaticality|*]][<sub>TP</sub> Ik [<sub>T'</sub> hebben [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>PP</sub> van [<sub>DP</sub> '''∅''' [<sub>QUOTE</sub> I hate you]]]]] 
|-
|}

====Quotative particles====
Quotative or hearsay particles are grammatical markers equivalent to full lexical verbs with meanings of ''"say, mention, tell, etc."'' In many languages, they are [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] to different extremes from their previously lexical form. Common patterns of grammaticalization trajectories include verb to complementizer in many African and Asian languages and verb to [[tense-aspect-mood]] markers primarily in African languages, but also in Australian languages and multiple other [[language family|language families]].<ref name="DarcyA Review"/><ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto">{{cite journal |last1=Matsui |first1=Tomoko |last2=Yamamoto |first2=Taeko |title=Developing sensitivity to the sources of information: Early use of the Japanese quotative particles tte and to in mother–child conversation |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |date=2013 |volume=59 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2013.06.008 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378216613001598|access-date=13 April 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Quotative Particle Ashita hareru tteto yo.png|thumb|Quotative Particle "-tte" and "to" in Japanese.]]
Japanese, for example, uses a sentence-final quotative particle ''tte'' verbally to mean "I heard (quote)" with some uncertainty. In sentence-medial position, ''tte'' is sometimes regarded along with ''to'' to be either a quotative particle or complementizer meaning "I heard (quote)" with less uncertainty and often more knowledge of the origin of the quote.

{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2
|c1= <ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto" />
| 明日  晴れる  -'''って'''
| ashita  hareru  '''tte'''.
| tomorrow  will-be-fine  QUOT
| "It will be fine tomorrow, I heard."
}}
{{fs interlinear |lang=ja |indent=2 |abbreviations=FP:final particle
|c1= <ref name="Matsui and Yamamoto" />
| 明日  晴れる  '''って'''/'''と'''  言ってた  よ
| ashita  hareru  '''-tte'''/'''to'''  itteta  yo.
| tomorrow  will-be-fine  QUOT  said  FP
| "(X) said that it would be fine tomorrow."
}}
Verbs of saying are highly restricted in Australian languages and almost always immediately proceed the complement verb.

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=IRR:irregular
|top='''[[Ngarinyin language|Ngarinyin]] example'''
|c1= <ref name="DarcyA Review"/> 
| wurlan wurr-u-miyangga bud-ma-ra-ngarrugu
| word 3PL-FUT-know 3PL-say-PST-1PL.OBL.IRR
| "They will know this word" they said to us.
}}

====Quotative evidentials====
Quotative or hearsay evidentials provide knowledge of who or where information originated from in speech based on logical assumption. Languages indicate this in various ways: through grammatical marking, additional words and phrases, prosody, gestures, or systematic affixes of verbs. Quotative readings of evidentials are typologically rare. For example, English can express evidentials with an optional adverb, "''Allegedly'', Annie pulled the trigger." The interlocutor then knows the source of the quotation is from elsewhere, but this is not a quotative reading as there is no direct performative quoting or verbs of saying. Languages including Cusco Quechua, Kham, Tagalog, and Kaalallisut are documented as containing quotative evidentials. In languages with "true" quotative evidentials (which usually introduce quoted statements), it is also possible for them to occur with interrogatives and imperatives, yielding quoted interrogatives and quoted imperatives.<ref name="quechua"/><ref name="SRL Ev">{{cite journal |last1=San Roque |first1=Lila |title=Evidentiality |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=2019 |volume=48 |pages=353–370 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011243 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Similar to quotative particles, quotative evidentials are usually [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] from full lexical verbs.<ref name="Chojnicka Latvian">{{cite journal |last1=Chojnicka |first1=Joanna |title=Latvian verbs of speaking and their relations to evidentiality |journal=Kalbotyra |issue=69 |pages=59–81}}</ref>

[[Nheengatu|Nhêengatú]], a Tupí-Guaraní [[lingua franca]] of North-West Amazonia, has a reported evidential marker ''paá''. An example scenario is as follows: X saw John go fishing. Mary then and asks X where John went. X replies "u-sú u-piniatika" (he went fishing). Later, Peter asks Mary where John went. She replies to Peter that she did not see John go herself, but rather heard it from a different source using the evidential marker "u-sú u-piniatika ''paá.''" <ref name="aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y (2014). The grammar of knowledge: a cross-linguistic view of evidentials, and the expression of information source. Oxford University Press. p.4-5. {{ISBN|9780198701316}}</ref>

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker
|c1= <ref name="aikhenvald"/>
| u-sú  u-piniatika  '''paá'''
| 3SG-go  3SG-fish  '''REP'''
| "He went fishing (they say/I was told)"
}}

[[File:Quotative Evidential Pitas Inesqa watukusqa.png|thumb|Quotative Evidential "=si" in Cusco Quechua.]]
[[Tagalog language|Tagalog's]] quotative evidentials are used with imperative quotations.<ref name="quechua" />

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker; INF:infix
|c1= <ref name="quechua" />
| kumain (ka) '''daw'''
| eat.INF (you) '''REP'''
| Someone said: Eat!
}}

[[Cusco Quechua]]'s quotative evidential comes as a derivation of a [[clitic]], ''=si'', for interrogative quotations.<ref name="quechua" />

{{interlinear |indent=2 |abbreviations=REP:reported evidential marker
|c1= <ref name="quechua" />
| pi-ta{{=}}'''s'''  Inés-qa  watuku-sqa
| who-ACC{{=}}'''REP''' Inés-TOP  visit-PST
| 'Someone said: Who did Inés visit?'
}}

=== Hand gesture ===
Hand gesturing a quotation in a conversation can be done with [[air quotes]].<ref name="Phrase Finder">{{cite web |last=Martin |first=Gary |title=Air quotes |url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/air-quotes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103020926/http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/air-quotes.html |archive-date=3 November 2008 |access-date=18 November 2008 |work=The Phrase Finder}}</ref>