Editing Sinicization (section)

====Yuan dynasty====
The [[Mongols|Mongol]]-led [[Yuan dynasty]] appointed a [[Muslims|Muslim]] from [[Bukhara]], ''[[Sayyid]]'' [[Ajall Shams al-Din Omar]], as governor of [[Yunnan]] after conquering the [[Bai people|Bai]]-led [[Dali Kingdom]]. Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize Yunnan province;<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=na+family+hui&pg=PA22|title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1999|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|location=Richmond|page=23|access-date=2010-06-28|archive-date=2023-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034530/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=na+family+hui&pg=PA22#v=snippet&q=na%20family%20hui&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> the promotion of [[Islam in China|Islam]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Buddhism]] would be part of his '[[civilizing mission]]' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian."<ref name="SAYYED AJALL">{{cite web|last1=Lane|first1=George|date=June 29, 2011|title=Sayyed ajall|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sayyed-ajall|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117054524/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sayyed-ajall|archive-date=17 November 2012|access-date=17 November 2012|website=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref><ref>Atwood, Christopher P. 2004. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140813153811/http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din]." ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Archived from [http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free the original] on 2014-08-13.</ref>

He founded a "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern [[Kunming]] is today, and ordered that a [[Buddhist temple]], two [[mosque]]s, and a [[Confucian temple]] be built in the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gaubatz|first=Piper Rae|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drGGEsi1fFEC&q=sichuan+ajall+yuan&pg=PA78|title=Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1996|isbn=0804723990|edition=illustrated|page=78|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034531/https://books.google.com/books?id=drGGEsi1fFEC&q=sichuan+ajall+yuan&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=administrators+Shams+al-din+umar++al+bukhari|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|publisher=The Institute|year=1986|page=385|quote=certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan&nbsp;... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034530/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=administrators+Shams+al-din+umar++al+bukhari|url-status=live}}</ref> The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tan Ta Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA92|title=Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2009|isbn=978-9812308375|edition=illustrated, reprint|page=92|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513091008/https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA92|archive-date=13 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from the definition of fellow Chinese he governed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carter|first=James|title=How Kublai Khan's Yuan complicates the notion of 'China'|date=16 December 2020|url=https://supchina.com/2020/12/16/how-kublai-khans-yuan-complicates-the-notion-of-china/|access-date=31 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213411/https://supchina.com/2020/12/16/how-kublai-khans-yuan-complicates-the-notion-of-china/|url-status=live}}</ref> As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce [[Confucian education]], [[Confucian ritual religion|rituals]], and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, [[Chinese funeral rituals|funeral rituals]], and [[Traditional Chinese marriage|marriage customs]].<ref name="SAYYED AJALL" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA477|title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300)|series=Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1993|isbn=3447033398|editor-last=Rachewiltz|editor-first=Igor de|volume=121|page=477|issn=0571-320X|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514030252/https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA477|archive-date=14 May 2016|url-status=live }}</ref> He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign.<ref name="Silk Road p116">{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXhhkvOULHsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA116|title=The Silk Road in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=019979880X|page=116|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035028/https://books.google.com/books?id=xXhhkvOULHsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA116#v=snippet&q=yunnan%20sayyid%20mongols%20prince&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA476|title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300)|series=Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1993|isbn=3447033398|editor-last=Rachewiltz|editor-first=Igor de|volume=121|page=476|issn=0571-320X|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035029/https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA476#v=snippet&q=yunnan%20sayyid%20mongols%20prince&f=false|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Groups – china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202065243/http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm|archive-date=2014-12-02|access-date=2014-08-16|website=www.china.org.cn}}</ref>

Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by [[Sichuanese people|Sichuanese]] scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=pioneered+salary+school+kunming|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0231142540|page=154|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035029/https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=pioneered+salary+school+kunming|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Yang 2008">{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0231142540|chapter=Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese|access-date=24 April 2014|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/pdf/yang-chapter5.pdf|archive-date=23 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323041235/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/pdf/yang-chapter5.pdf|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well.<ref name="Yang 2008" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=For+instance%2C+Sayyid%27Ajall+Shams+Al-Din+taught+indigenous+peoples+to+perform+the+Confucian+rituals+of+kneeling+%28kowtow%29%2C+matchmaking+for+marriage%2C+marriage+ceremonies%2C+funerals%2C+and+ancestral+worship.+He+also+presented+native+chieftains+with+clothes%2C+hats%2C+socks%2C+and+shoes+to+replace+their+%22barbarian%22+dress.|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0231142540|page=157|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035033/https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=For+instance%2C+Sayyid%27Ajall+Shams+Al-Din+taught+indigenous+peoples+to+perform+the+Confucian+rituals+of+kneeling+%28kowtow%29%2C+matchmaking+for+marriage%2C+marriage+ceremonies%2C+funerals%2C+and+ancestral+worship.+He+also+presented+native+chieftains+with+clothes%2C+hats%2C+socks%2C+and+shoes+to+replace+their+%22barbarian%22+dress.|url-status=live}}</ref> The governor was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by [[He Hongzuo]], the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thant Myint-U|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238|title=Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia|publisher=Macmillan|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4668-0127-1|quote=claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara&nbsp;... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan&nbsp;... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes<!--spell check--> and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps'&nbsp;...|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref>

Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Th Houtsma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PA847|title=First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936|publisher=BRILL|year=1993|isbn=90-04-09796-1|page=847|quote=Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi: he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040057/https://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PA847#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Both [[Marco Polo]] and [[Rashid al-Din Vatvat]] recorded that Yunnan was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi."<ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=al+din+yachi+exclusively+prominent|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=174|quote=from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=al+din+yachi+exclusively+prominent|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been suggested that Yachi was [[Dali City]] (''Ta-li''), which had many Hui people.<ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=when+early+al+din+yachi+exclusively+ta-li+centre+though|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=387|quote=when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=when+early+al+din+yachi+exclusively+ta-li+centre+though|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sayyid Ajall's son [[Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)|Nasir al-Din]] became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death.<ref>( ){{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238|title=Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia|year=2011|author=Thant Myint-U|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4668-0127-1|quote=In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref><ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=son+Nasir|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=385|quote=On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040059/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=son+Nasir|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving the Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997);<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_dis_History.html|title="CESWW" – Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies – History|website=cesww.fas.harvard.edu|access-date=2014-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825130022/http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_dis_History.html|archive-date=2014-08-25|url-status=live}}</ref> and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.)<ref>{{cite web|title=Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan|url=https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1998abst/china/c8.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715144153/https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1998abst/china/c8.htm|archive-date=2015-07-15|access-date=2014-08-16}}</ref> and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989).<ref>{{cite book|last=Gladney|first=Dru C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=armijo&pg=PA366|title=Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=1996|isbn=0674594975|series=Harvard East Asian Monographs 149|page=424|issn=0073-0483|access-date=24 April 2014|orig-year=1991|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040602/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=armijo&pg=PA366#v=snippet&q=armijo&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>