Editing Taa language (section)

===Consonants===
Taa is unusual in allowing mixed [[phonation|voicing]] in its consonants. These have been analyzed as prevoiced, but also as consonant clusters. When [[homorganic]], as in [dt], such clusters are listed in the chart below.

Taa consonants are complex, and it is not clear how much of the difference between the dialects is real and how much is an artifact of analysis.

====East ǃXoon (Traill)====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ East ǃXoon dialect: Non-click consonants (Traill 2018)<ref name=Bennett>William Bennett (forthcoming) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.) ''Click Consonants'', Brill, p. 102 ff.</ref>
! colspan=2|
! [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan=9 | [[plosive consonant|Plosive]]/<br />[[affricate]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|b}} || {{IPAlink|d̪}} || {{IPAlink|dz}} || ({{IPAlink|ɟ}}) || {{IPAlink|ɡ}} || {{IPAlink|ɢ}} [{{IPAlink|ᶰɢ}}] ||
|-
! <small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small>
| ({{IPAlink|p}}) || {{IPAlink|t̪}} || {{IPAlink|ts}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|q}} || {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|voiceless aspirated]]</small>
| ({{IPAlink|pʰ}}) || {{IPAlink|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʰ}} || {{IPAlink|qʰ}} ||
|-
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant#Voiced stop|prevoiced aspirated]]</small>
| || {{IPAlink|ˬd̪̊ʰ}}|| {{IPAlink|ˬd̥sʰ}} || || ({{IPAlink|ˬɡ̊ʰ}}) || ({{IPAlink|ˬɢ̥ʰ}}) [{{IPAlink|ᶰɢ͡qʰ}}] ||
|-
! <small>[[velarized]]</small>
| ({{IPA|pχ}}) || {{IPA|t̪χ}} || {{IPA|tsχ}} || ||  ||  ||
|-
! <small>prevoiced velarized</small><ref group=note>voiced lead, voiceless at release</ref>
| || {{IPA|ˬd̥χ}} || {{IPA|ˬd̥sχ}} || || || ||
|-
! <small>[[ejective consonant|voiceless ejective]]</small>
| || ({{IPAlink|t̪ʼ}}) || {{IPAlink|tsʼ}} || || ({{IPAlink|kʼ}}) || ({{IPAlink|qʼ}}) ||
|-
! <small>ejective cluster</small><ref group=note>The final element of all of these varies dialectically between {{IPA|[kxʼ]}} and {{IPA|[kxʼq]}}.</ref>
| ({{IPA|pʼkχʼ}}) || {{IPA|t̪ʼkχʼ}} || {{IPA|tsʼkχʼ}} || || {{IPA|kxʼ}} || ||
|-
! <small>pre[[voiced ejective]]</small><ref group=note>"There is voice lead followed by an ejected stop followed by an ejected velar affricate. '''kχʼ''' is [kχʼ] or [kχʼq]."
</ref>
| || {{IPA|ˬd̪̊ʼkχʼ}}|| {{IPA|ˬd̥sʼkχʼ}} || || {{IPA|ˬɡ̊xʼ}} || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| ({{IPAlink|f}}) || || {{IPAlink|s}} || || {{IPAlink|x}} || || ({{IPAlink|h}})
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[nasal stop|Nasal]] || <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|m}} || {{IPAlink|n̪}} || || -{{IPAlink|ɲ}}- || -{{IPAlink|ŋ}} || ||
|-
! <small>[[glottalization|glottalized]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|ˀm}} || || {{IPAlink|ˀn}} || || || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | <small>Other</small>
| -{{IPAlink|β}}- || || -{{IPAlink|l}}- || -{{IPAlink|j}}- || || ||
|}

{{notelist}}

Consonants in parentheses are rare.

The nasal {{IPA|[ɲ]}} only occurs between vowels, and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} only word finally (and then only in some dialects, for what are nasal vowels elsewhere), so these may be [[allophone]]s. {{IPA|[β], [l], [j]}} also only occur in medial position, except that the last is an allophone of rare initial {{IPA|[ɟ]}}. {{IPA|[dʒ]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} (not in the table) occur in loans, mostly English.

Taa is typologically unusual in having mixed-voice ejectives. [[Juǀʼhoansi language|Juǀʼhoansi]], which is part of the same [[sprachbund]] as Taa, has mixed voicing in {{IPA|[d͡tʰ, d͡tʃʰ, d͡tsʼ]}}.<ref>{{SOWL|63, 80–81}}</ref>

Taa may have as few as 83 [[click consonant|click sounds]], if the more complex clicks are analyzed as [[consonant cluster|clusters]]. Given the intricate clusters posited seen in the non-click consonants, it is not surprising that many of the Taa clicks should be analyzed as clusters. However, there is some debate whether these are actually clusters; all non-Khoisan languages in the world that have clusters allow clusters with [[sonorant]]s like ''r, l, w, j'' (as in English ''tree, sleep, quick, cue''), and this does not occur in Taa.

There are five click articulations: [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]], [[dental consonant|dental]], [[lateral consonant|lateral]], [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], and [[palatal consonant|palatal]]. There are nineteen series, differing in phonation, manner, and complexity (see [[airstream contour]]). These are perfectly normal consonants in Taa, and indeed are preferred over non-clicks in word-initial position.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ East ǃXoon dialect: Click consonants (Traill 2018)<ref name=Bennett/>
! colspan=3 | noisy clicks || colspan=2 | 'sharp' clicks' || rowspan=2 | manner, along with speaker or dialect variation || rowspan=2| DoBeS cluster<br />analysis || rowspan=2| Miller (2011)<br />analysis<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Amanda |title=The Blackwell Companion to Phonology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4051-8423-6 |editor-last=van Oostendorp |editor-first=M. |volume=1 |page=434 |chapter=The Representation of Clicks |editor-last2=Ewen |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Hume |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Rice |editor-first4=K. |issue=1}}</ref>
|-
! [[bilabial click|bilabial]] || [[dental click|dental]] || [[lateral click|lateral]]|| [[alveolar click|alveolar]] || [[palatal click|palatal]]
|-
| {{IPAlink|kʘ}} || {{IPAlink|kǀ}} || {{IPAlink|kǁ}} || {{IPAlink|kǃ}} || {{IPAlink|kǂ}} || Weak tenuis {{IPAblink|k}} release ||{{IPA|kꞰ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ}}{{notetag|name=wildcard|{{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} is a [[International Phonetic Alphabet#Capital letters|wildcard letter]] for any click, or in this context any click articulation.}}
|-
| {{IPAlink|ɡʘ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǁ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǃ}} || {{IPAlink|ɡǂ}} || Voiced velar {{IPAblink|ɡ}} throughout the hold of the click ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘq}} || {{IPA|ǀq}} || {{IPA|ǁq}} || {{IPA|ǃq}} || {{IPA|ǂq}} || Released as a tenuis uvular stop {{IPAblink|q}} that is delayed considerably beyond the release of the click ||{{IPA|kꞰ + q}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜q}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɴʘɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǀɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǁɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǃɢ}} || {{IPA|ɴǂɢ}} || Prenasalized {{IPAblink|ɴ}}, with a voiced uvular release {{IPAblink|ɢ}}||{{IPA|kꞰ + ɢ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢ}}
<!--|-
| {{IPA|kʘʰ}} || {{IPA|kǀʰ}} || {{IPA|kǁʰ}} || {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|kǂʰ}} || Aspirated velar {{IPA|[kʰ]}} release || {{IPA|kꞰ + qʰ}} ?* || {{IPA|kꞰʰ}}
-->
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘh}} || {{IPA|ɡǀh}} || {{IPA|ɡǁh}} || {{IPA|ɡǃh}} || {{IPA|ɡǂh}} || Voiced lead with delayed aspiration (phonemically voiced lead with simple aspiration) || {{IPA|ɡꞰ + qʰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǀqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǁqʰ}} || {{IPA|ǃqʰ}} || {{IPA|}} || Cineradiology shows that the articulation is indeed uvular {{IPA|[qʰ]}} || {{IPA|kꞰ + qʰ}} ?* || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|}} || ({{IPA|ɴɢǀqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǁqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǃqʰ}}) || ({{IPA|ɴɢǂqʰ}}) || "Prenasalization with a uvular nasal {{IPAblink|ɴ}} and a brief uvular stop before the click, which is followed by an aspirated uvular stop" ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + ɢqʰ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘx}} || {{IPA|kǀχ}} || {{IPA|kǁχ}} || {{IPA|kǃχ}} || {{IPA|kǂχ}} || Voiceless velar affricate {{IPAblink|kx}} release, considerably fricative ||{{IPA|kꞰ + x}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qχ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǀχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǁχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǃχ}} || {{IPA|ɡǂχ}} || Voiced lead which ceases before the release of the click, like {{IPA|ɡkx}}. In some dialects, voiced throughout: {{IPA|[gꞰɣ]}}. ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + x}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜ɢʁ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʘkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǃkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ǂkχʼ}} || Released into {{IPA|[kχʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kʼq]}}<!--yes, that's [kʼq] and not [kxʼq]-->, depending on dialect ||{{IPA|kꞰ + kxʼ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜kxʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʘkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǀkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǁkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǃkχʼ}} || {{IPA|ɡǂkχʼ}} || Voiced lead, {{IPA|[kχʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kʼq]}} release ||{{IPA|ɡꞰ + kxʼ}} || {{IPA|ᶢꞰ͜kxʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|kʘˀ}} || {{IPA|kǀˀ}} || {{IPA|kǁˀ}} || {{IPA|kǃˀ}} || {{IPA|kǂˀ}} || Silent release, followed after some delay by the release of a glottal stop {{IPAblink|ʔ}} ||{{IPA|kꞰ + ʔ}} || {{IPA|ᵑꞰˀ}} 
<!--|-
| {{IPA|ʘkʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀkʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁkʼ}} || {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|ǂkʼ}} || Released as an unaffricated velar ejective {{IPA|[kʼ]}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|kꞰ + qʼ}} * || {{IPA|Ʞˀ}}
-->
|-
| {{IPA|ʘqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǀqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǁqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǃqʼ}} || {{IPA|ǂqʼ}} || Released as an unaffricated uvular ejective {{IPAblink|qʼ}} || {{IPA|Ʞ͜qʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|n̥ʘ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǀ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǁ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǃ}} || {{IPA|n̥ǂ}} || Voiceless nasal airflow {{IPAblink|ŋ̊}} throughout the hold of the click || {{IPA|ŋ̊Ʞ}} || {{IPA|ᵑ̊Ʞ}}
|-
| {{IPA|nʘ}} || {{IPA|nǀ}} || {{IPA|nǁ}} || {{IPA|nǃ}} || {{IPA|nǂ}} || Voiced velar nasal airflow {{IPAblink|ŋ}} throughout the hold of the click || {{IPA|ŋꞰ}} || {{IPA|ᵑꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʔnʘ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǀ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǁ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǃ}} || {{IPA|ʔnǂ}} || Preglottalized nasal {{IPA|[ˀŋ]}}, "best described as a click superimposed on the sequence {{IPA|[ʔŋ]}} ... the release of the click is immediately after a brief period of {{IPAblink|ŋ}}" ||{{IPA|kꞰ + mˀ/nˀ}} || {{IPA|ˀᵑꞰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɴ̥ʘh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǀh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǁh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǃh}} || {{IPA|ɴ̥ǂh}} || Delayed aspiration: inaudible release followed by crescendo aspiration.{{efn|Inaudibility achieved "by a complex venting of the pulmonic pressure (Traill 1992). In fast speech the venting may sometimes be accompanied by a brief period of nasalization of the vowel and an intrusive velar nasal preceding the click." Ladefoged characterized them as ingressive voiceless nasal airflow {{IPA|[↓ŋ̊]}} with delayed aspiration.}} ||{{IPA|kꞰ + h}} || {{IPA|ᵑ̊Ʞʰ}}
|}
{{notelist}}

The DoBeS project takes Traill's cluster analysis to mean that only the twenty tenuis, voiced, nasal, and voiceless nasal clicks are basic, with the rest being clusters of the tenuis and voiced clicks with {{IPA|x, kxʼ, q, ɢ, qʰ, ɢqʰ, qʼ, ʔ, h}} and either {{IPA|mˀ}} or {{IPA|nˀ}}. Work on Taa's sister language Nǁng suggests that all clicks in both languages have a uvular or rear articulation, and that the clicks considered to be uvular here are actually lingual–pulmonic and lingual–glottalic airstream [[contour (linguistics)|contour]]s. It may be that the 'prevoiced' consonants of Taa, including prevoiced clicks, can also be analyzed as contour consonants, in this case with voicing contours.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> DoBeS only matches 17 series to Traill, as the {{IPA|Ʞkʰ}}–{{IPA|Ʞqʰ}} and {{IPA|Ʞkʼ}}–{{IPA|Ʞqʼ}} distinctions he discovered had not yet been published. DoBeS {{angbr IPA|Ʞh}} and {{angbr IPA|Ʞqh}}, respectively, correspond to the former pair, while {{angbr IPA|Ʞʼ}} and {{angbr IPA|Ʞʼʼ}} (presumably in that order, as uvular clicks tend to have a delayed release) correspond to the latter pair.

Traill's account of East ǃXoon leaves for voiceless series of clicks without equivalents with a voiced lead. The DoBeS account of West ǃXoon, which uses voicing for morphological derivation to a greater extent than East ǃXoon does, has four additional series, written nꞰʼʼ, gꞰʼ, gꞰqʼ and nꞰhh in their practical orthography. The first three match the unpaired glottalized series of Traill, {{IPA|Ʞˀ}} (= {{IPA|ᵑꞰˀ}}), {{IPA|Ʞkʼ}}, {{IPA|Ʞqʼ}}. If Traill's {{IPA|ɡꞰh}} series is the voiced equivalent of plain aspirated {{IPA|Ʞʰ}}, rather than delayed aspirated, that would leave the DobeS nꞰhh series as voiced delayed aspiration.

All nasal clicks have twin airstreams, since the air passing through the nose bypasses the tongue. Usually this is [[pulmonic egressive]]. However, the {{IPA|↓ŋ̊Ʞh}} series in Taa is characterized by pulmonic ''[[pulmonic ingressive|ingressive]]'' nasal airflow. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:268) state that "This ǃXóõ click is probably unique among the sounds of the world's languages that, even in the middle of a sentence, it may have ingressive pulmonic airflow." Taa is the only language known to contrast voiceless nasal and voiceless nasal aspirated (i.e. delayed aspirated) clicks (Miller 2011).

====West ǃXoon (DoBeS)====
West ǃXoon has 164 consonants in a strict unit analysis, including 111 clicks in 23 series, which under a cluster analysis reduce to 87 consonants, including 43 clicks.

These are written in the practical orthography (Naumann 2008).<ref>{{Citation |last=Naumann |first=Christfied |title=3rd International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics |year=2008 |chapter=The Consonantal System of West ǃXoon |place=Riezlern}}</ref> Marginal consonants are not marked as such.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ West ǃXoon dialect (DoBeS 2008): Consonants
! colspan=2 | 
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] 
! colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] 
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] 
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] 
! colspan=2| [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] 
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
! Click{{notetag|name=wildcard}}
|-
! rowspan=6 | [[Stop consonant|Stop]] /<br/>[[affricate]]
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|b}} || {{IPAlink|d}} || {{IPAlink|d͡z}} || || {{IPAlink|ɡ}} || {{IPAlink|ᶰɢ}} || || || gꞰ
|-
! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|p}} || {{IPAlink|t}} || {{IPAlink|t͡s}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|q}} || || {{IPAlink|ʔ}} || Ʞ
|-
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|pʰ}} || {{IPAlink|tʰ}} || {{IPAlink|t͡sʰ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʰ}} || {{IPAlink|qʰ}} ||  || rowspan=4| || Ʞh
|-
! <small>voiced aspirated</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|bʱ}} || {{IPAlink|dʱ}} || {{IPAlink|d͡zʱ}} || || {{IPAlink|ɡʱ}} || {{IPAlink|ᶰɢʱ}} || || gꞰh
|-
! <small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|pʼ}} || {{IPAlink|tʼ}} || {{IPAlink|t͡sʼ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʼ}} || {{IPAlink|qʼ}} || {{IPAlink|q͡χʼ}} || Ʞʼ
|-
! <small>voiced 'ejective'</small>
|  || ||  {{IPAlink|d͡zˀ}} || || {{IPAlink|ɡˀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɢˀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɢ͡ʁˀ}} || gꞰʼ
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] 
|  {{IPAlink|f}} || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|s}} || ||  || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|χ}} || {{IPAlink|ɦ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]  
! <small>voiced</small> 
|  {{IPAlink|m}} || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|n}} || {{IPAlink|ɲ}} || {{IPAlink|ŋ}} || colspan=2|  || rowspan=5| || nꞰ
|-
! <small>voiceless</small> 
|  colspan=7| || nhꞰ
|-
! <small>[[Glottalization|glottalized]]</small>
|  {{IPAlink|ˀm}} || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|ˀn}} || || || colspan=2|  || ʼnꞰ
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|  {{IPAlink|w}} || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|l}} || {{IPAlink|j}} || || colspan=4|  
|-
! colspan=2 | "Intermittent"
|   || colspan=2| {{IPAlink|ɾ}} ||  || || colspan=4| 
|}

Vowel nasalization is only phonemic on the second [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] (in CCVV etc. syllables), as it is a phonetic effect of the {{angbr|nꞰhh}} clicks on the first mora. The {{angbr|nꞰhh}} clicks do not make the following vowel breathy, maintaining a contrast between {{angbr|nǂhha}} and {{angbr|nǂhhah}}. Likewise, while {{angbr|gꞰʼ}} clicks do make the following vowel [[creaky voice|creaky]], there is a delayed onset to the vowel and the amplitude of the glottalization of {{angbr|gǂʼaʼ}} is less than that of {{angbr|gǂaʼ}} with a phonemically creaky vowel.

In an attempt to keep the phonemic inventory as symmetric as possible, the DoBeS team analyzed as segments two of the click types that Traill analyzed as clusters. These are the pre-glottalized nasal clicks, ''ʼnꞰ'', which Traill had analyzed as {{IPA|/Ʞ/ + /ʼn/}}, and the voiced aspirated clicks, ''gꞰh'', which Traill had analyzed as {{IPA|/ɡꞰ/ + /qʰ/}}.

The expectation, from the morphology of ǃXoon, for voiceless-voiced pairs of click clusters led to the discovery of several series not distinguished by Traill. (This morphology appears to be more pervasive in West ǃXoon than in the East ǃXoon dialect that Traill worked on.) These are voiced click types which may not exist in East ǃXoon at all, namely ''nꞰʼʼ, nꞰhh, gꞰʼ,'' and ''gꞰqʼ.'' It also lead to the rediscovery of two series that Traill had not been able to publish before his death. Thus the DoBeS team distinguishes two series, ''Ʞqh'' and ''Ʞh,'' for Trail's ''Ʞqh'' and ''Ʞkh'', as well as ''Ʞʼʼ'' and ''Ʞʼ'' for Traill's ''Ʞqʼ'' and ''Ʞkʼ'' (or perhaps vice versa). If Traill's ''Ʞkh'' series is to be analyzed as ''kꞰ + h'', then that would require a different assessment of Traill's delayed-aspiration series.

Under the contour analysis of Miller (2009), the distinction between simple and [[contour click]]s largely parallels the DoBeS identification of clusters, apart from the last four rows (Ʞʼʼ, nꞰʼʼ, Ʞhh, nꞰhh), which are considered to be simple clicks.