Editing Terry stop (section)

== Racial disparities ==
Police officers may develop schemas after continuously being exposed to certain environments, like high-crime minority neighborhoods, which can lead to their association of crime with race instead of focusing on suspicious behavior.<ref name=":56"/> Officers who have been in the police force for longer are more likely to have suspicions based on non-behavioral reasons.<ref name=":56"/> Forms of American culture that perpetuate negative stereotypes, such as black people being violent or white people committing white-collar crimes, can theoretically cause people to act on these stereotypes, even if they do not believe them, making implicit bias a possible factor in arrests.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Correll|first1=Joshua|title=The Police Officer's Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals|date=2004-12-30|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203496398-28|work=Social Cognition|pages=451–469|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-203-49639-8|access-date=2021-04-27|last2=Park|first2=Bernadette|last3=Judd|first3=Charles M.|last4=Wittenbrink|first4=Bernd|doi=10.4324/9780203496398-28|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Some argue that Black and Hispanic people are more likely to be targeted and are more likely to be stopped than population and relative crime rates might suggest.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Goel|first1=Sharad|last2=Rao|first2=Justin M.|last3=Shroff|first3=Ravi|date=2016-03-01|title=Precinct or prejudice? Understanding racial disparities in New York City's stop-and-frisk policy|journal=The Annals of Applied Statistics|volume=10|issue=1|doi=10.1214/15-aoas897|issn=1932-6157|doi-access=free}}</ref>

''Terry'' stop regulations vary by area. Areas with high crime, such as public housing, might require less evidence for someone to be stopped.<ref name=":32" /> This places the inhabitants of the area at greater risk for detainment.<ref name=":32" /> In areas that are perceived to have high crimes, more police are deployed, which results in higher arrest rates, which are then used to justify more policing.<ref name=":56" /> When controlling for location-based stops, one study found that white people were more likely to have a weapon than are black or Hispanic people.<ref name=":32" /> Another study determined that the same proportion of racial groups were stopped during the day and at night, suggesting that stop decisions were not based on the physical appearance of the driver.<ref name=":32" /> However, the study was interpreted to suggest that black people are more likely to be detained for longer periods of time.<ref name=":32" /> The National Research Council states that "more research is needed on the complex interplay of race, ethnicity, and other social factors in police-citizen interactions."<ref name=":56" />

One study suggested a 27% increase in the likelihood of black people experiencing force during a stop compared to a white person, and a 28% increase in likelihood that the officer would draw his or her gun.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Kramer|first1=Rory|last2=Remster|first2=Brianna|date=2018|title=Stop, Frisk, and Assault? Racial Disparities in Police Use of Force During Investigatory Stops|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/lasr.12366|journal=Law & Society Review|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=960–993|doi=10.1111/lasr.12366|s2cid=149764658 |issn=1540-5893|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The study also determined that even during consensual stops, blacks are 29% more likely to experience force than other racial groups.<ref name=":6" /> Young people were found more likely to experience force compared to older people.<ref name=":6" /> In New York City between 1996 and 2000, there was a disproportionate number of complaints by blacks about officers' [[use of force]].<ref name=":82"/> Governmental and nongovernmental organizations investigations have confirmed that police-perpetrated abuse has affected many people of all races.<ref name=":82"/> Another study blamed variances in types of nonverbal communication among races as a factor influencing some officers' suspicions.<ref name=":56"/>

A 2009 study theorized that police officers could use their power to enforce their masculinity.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=Frank|date=2009-01-01|title="Who's the Man?": Masculinities Studies, Terry Stops, and Police Training|url=https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/1122|journal=Scholarly Works}}</ref> Because most police officers and detainees are men, officers are susceptible to the culture of honor stance and [[hypermasculinity]], in which they are more prone to physical aggression in order to protect their social standing.<ref name=":102"/>

A 2015 study concluded that immigration does not have a positive correlation with crime, but that immigrants are disproportionately stopped and arrested, leading to distrust of law enforcement.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Torres|first=Jose|date=2015|title=Race/Ethnicity and Stop-and-Frisk: Past, Present, Future|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/soc4.12322|journal=Sociology Compass|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=931–939|doi=10.1111/soc4.12322|issn=1751-9020|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The study also argued that immigrants typically possess less awareness of how to behave when stopped by the police.<ref name=":72"/> After being stopped more often, immigrants may hold distrust towards the police.<ref name=":72"/>