Editing Abkhaz language

{{Short description|Northwest Caucasian language of Abkhazia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Abkhaz
| altname          = Abkhazian
| nativename       = {{lang|ab|аԥсшәа/аҧсшәа}}; {{lang|ab|аԥсуа бызшәа}}<br />{{Transliteration|ab|apsshwa}}; {{Transliteration|ab|apsua byzshwa}}
| image            = Abkhaz language.svg
| imagealt         = 
| imagecaption     = 
| ethnicity        = [[Abkhazians]]
| states           = [[Abkhazia]], [[Krasnodar Kray]]
| minority         = [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| region           = [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|194,710|2}}
| date             = 2015–2019
| ref              = e25
| familycolor      = Caucasian
| fam1             = [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]
| fam2             = [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]]
| dia1             = Abzhywan
| dia2             = [[Bzyp dialect|Bzyp]]
| dia3             = Sadz
| nation           = [[Republic of Abkhazia]]{{efn|name=Abkhazia-note|{{Abkhazia note}}}}
| script           = [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Abkhaz alphabet]])
Historically: [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Georgian script|Georgian]]
| iso1             = ab
| iso1comment      = Abkhazian
| iso2             = abk
| iso2comment      = Abkhazian
| iso3             = abk
| iso3comment      = Abkhazian
| glotto           = abkh1244
| glottoname       = Abkhaz
| map              = Map of Abkhaz language.svg
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Abkhaz is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php?hl=en&page=atlasmap|title=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger|website=UNESCO|accessdate=Mar 3, 2021|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802160530/http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php?hl=en&page=atlasmap|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

'''Abkhaz''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|æ|b|ˈ|k|ɑː|z|,_|æ|p|ˈ|x|ɑː|z}} {{respell|ab|KAHZ|,_|ap|KHAHZ}};<ref>{{Cite OED|Abkhaz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |title=The Linguistics Student's Handbook |date=2007 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |language=en}}</ref> {{lang|ab|Аԥсуа бызшәа}} {{Transliteration|ab|Apsua byzshwa}}, {{IPA|ab|ˈɑpʰswɑ bəzʃᶣɑ|pron}}.}} also known as '''Abkhazian''',<ref name="ISO 639-2/RA">{{Cite web |title=Documentation for ISO 639 Identifier: abk |url=https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=2 |access-date=4 July 2017 |publisher=ISO 639-2 Registration Authority – Library of Congress |language=en |quote=Name: Abkhazian}}</ref><ref name="ISO 639-3/RA">{{Cite web |title=Documentation for ISO 639 Identifier: abk |url=http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=abk |access-date=4 July 2017 |publisher=ISO 639-3 Registration Authority – SIL International |language=en |quote=Name: Abkhazian}}</ref> is a [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]] most closely related to [[Abaza language|Abaza]]. It is spoken mostly by the [[Abkhazians|Abkhaz people]]. It is one of the official languages of [[Abkhazia]],{{efn|name=Abkhazia-note}} where around 190,000 people speak it.<ref name=e25/> Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in [[Turkey]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'s autonomous republic of [[Adjara]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], and several Western countries. 27 October is the day of the Abkhazian language in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=27 okt'omberi apkhazuri enis dghea |script-title=ka:27 ოქტომბერი აფხაზური ენის დღეა |trans-title=October 27 is Abkhazian Language Day |url=https://sknews.ge/ka/old/10519 |access-date=23 May 2021 |website=sknews.ge |language=ka}}</ref>

== Classification ==
Abkhaz is a [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Catford|first=J. C.|date=October 1977|title=Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.an.06.100177.001435|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=283–314|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.06.100177.001435|issn=0084-6570|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=:13>{{Cite book|title=Atlas of Caucasian Languages|year=2002|pages=13–14}}</ref> and is thus related to [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]]. The language of Abkhaz is especially close to [[Abaza language|Abaza]], and they are sometimes considered dialects of the same language,<ref name="ReferenceA">''B. G. Hewitt Abkhaz 1979;'' page 1.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Viacheslav A.|first=Chirikba|title=A Dictionary Of Common Abkhaz|publisher=Leiden|year=1996|pages=2}}</ref> [[Abazgi]], of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a [[dialect continuum]]. Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial, it also contains elements characteristic of [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]];<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire|url=https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/abazians.shtml|access-date=9 August 2021|website=www.eki.ee}}</ref><ref name="Viacheslav A. 2003 11">{{Cite book|last=Viacheslav A.|first=Chirikba|title=Abkhaz|year=2003|pages=11}}</ref> these are the main reasons for many others<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=W. S.|title=Structure and System in the Abaza Verbal Complex|date=November 1956|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-968X.1956.tb00566.x|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|language=en|volume=55|issue=1|pages=127–176|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1956.tb00566.x|issn=0079-1636|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=N.|first=Genko, A.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/977702574|title=Абазинский язык.|date=1955|publisher=Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR|oclc=977702574}}</ref> to prefer keeping the two separate, while others<ref name="Viacheslav A. 2003 11"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> still refer to it as the Tapanta dialect of Abkhaz. Chirikba<ref>{{Cite book|last=Viacheslav A.|first=Chirikba|title=Abkhaz|year=2003|pages=10–11}}</ref> mentions that there are possible indications that [[Proto-Northwest Caucasian language|proto-Northwest Caucasian]], could have divided firstly into [[Proto-Circassian language|proto-Circassian]] and to proto-Ubykh-Abkhaz; [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] then being the closest relative to Abkhaz, with it only later on being influenced by Circassian.

== Geographical distribution ==
[[File:CircassianinRu.png|thumb|Distribution of Abkhaz in the Caucasus.]]
There is not an agreed number of speakers of Abkhaz, and there are widely different numbers. It is agreed that today most of the Abkhaz people do not live in Abkhazia. In the census conducted by the Republic of Abkhazia in 2011, Abkhazians comprised 50.8% of the population, around 122,175 people; of these 92,838 spoke it natively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=население абхазии|url=http://www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru/rnabkhazia.html|access-date=28 August 2021|website=www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru}}</ref><ref name=:13/> Only two of the original dialects are still spoken in Abkhazia. The Bzyp dialect is still spoken in its homeland northwest of [[Sukhumi]], stretching from the [[Bzyp River]] to the western environs of Sukhumi and the Psyrtskha valley, whereas the Abzhywa dialect is spoken south-east of Sukhumi.<ref name=:13/><ref>V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 7</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">George Hewitt 1998. The Abkhazians. Page 167</ref> The rest of the Abkhaz speaking population inhabits other neighbouring areas.

The exact number of Abkhazians and Abkhaz speakers in Turkey is not clear. The Turkish census denotes 13,951, but the figures are dubious, since the numbers of Abkhazians that came from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th have been documented at around 30 thousand.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 March 2019|title=TÜRKİYE'DE BAĞLI OLDUĞU İLLERE GÖRE ABAZA (AŞUWA-ŞKARAWA VE TAPANTA) KÖYLERİ|url=http://circassiancenter.com/tr/turkiyede-bagli-oldugu-illere-gore-abaza-asuwa-skarawa-ve-tapanta-koyleri/|access-date=28 August 2021|website=Gerçek sizi özgür kılar! ⚜️ The truth will set you free!|language=tr}}</ref> ''Ethnologue'' gives 150,000 Abkhazians living in Turkey, of these 50,000 still speak the language.<ref name=e25/> The head of the Abkhaz federation says there are in between 500 and 700 thousand Abkhazians in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 February 2014|title=Özel Haber) Türkiye'de Abhazlar|url=https://www.haberler.com/ozel-haber-turkiye-de-abhazlar-5628842-haberi/|access-date=28 August 2021|website=Haberler.com|language=tr}}</ref> In general, Abkhaz seems to have been lost by most of the descendants, and bilingualism being low except in some specific areas, although there seems to be an effort for the new generation to learn the language with public schools being able to teach Abkhaz and together with 7,836 second language speakers.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=In one of the public educational schools in Turkey they have begun to study the Abkhaz language|url=https://abkhazworld.com/aw/diaspora/1282-public-educational-schools-in-turkey-they-have-begun-to-study-the-abkhaz|access-date=28 August 2021|website=Abkhaz World |date=21 October 2014 |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=:13/> Abkhazian villages are concentrated around the cities of [[Adapazarı]], [[Düzce]], [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]], [[Hendek]] and [[Samsun]] in the northern part, and in the west around cities such as [[Bilecik]], [[Inegöl]] and [[Eskişehir]]; they are mainly found in the provinces of [[Sakarya Province|Sakarya]] and [[Bolu Province|Bolu]] in the western part, and near the [[Çoruh]] river in the north-east.<ref>V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 6</ref><ref name=:13/><ref name=e25/>

Historically the dialects of Sadz, Ahchypsy and Tsabal were located in Abkhazia; Sadz being spoken from the Bzyp river to the [[Matsesta River]], and further to the north-west bordering the [[Sochypsta River]].<ref>V.A. Chirikba 1996. Sadz, an Abkhaz dialect in Turkey.</ref> Today they are exclusively spoken in the northwestern part of Turkey, specially in the Sakarya province, it being spoken in 14 villages.

The other major place where Abkhaz is spoken is in [[Karachay-Cherkessia]], where the Northern dialects are spoken, although there they are considered as a separate language and form the literary [[Abaza language]].<ref>V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 11</ref><ref name="ReferenceB"/> They are spoken by 37,831 people in Russia,<ref name="RC2010" /> mostly in the south of [[Stavropol Krai]] in the area around [[Kislovodsk]], and in the upper [[Kuma (Russia)|Kuma river]] area.<ref name=:13/>

Abkhaz is also spoken as a minority language around the world. There is a considerable number of Abkhaz speakers in [[Adjara]] in southern Georgia, with the diaspora concentrating itself around the capital [[Batumi]],<ref>V.A. Chirikba 2003. Pages 6-7</ref> with about 982 people considering Abkhaz their first language.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In the Russian census of 2010, 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz were reported in [[Russia]].<ref name="RC2010" /> In Ukraine there are around 1,458 according to the 2001 census, but of these only 317 speak Abkhazian.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 March 2007|title=Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 {{!}} The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue |url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?box=5.1W&out_type=&id=&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1&k_t=00&id=&botton=cens_db|access-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311004657/http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?box=5.1W&out_type=&id=&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1&k_t=00&id=&botton=cens_db|archive-date=11 March 2007}}</ref> There were also communities in [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and [[Iraq]] with around 5,000 Abkhazians,<ref name="V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 8">V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 8</ref><ref name=:13/> although this number could reach 10,000 according to the Abkhazia's Foreign Ministry.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 May 2012|title=Abkhaz Syrians return home: Voice of Russia|url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_05_05/73887817/|access-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511132359/http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_05_05/73887817/|archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> The biggest western diaspora is in [[Germany]], with around 5,000 speakers,<ref name="V.A. Chirikba 2003. Page 8"/> but other communities are found in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Austria, France, Belgium and so on.

== History ==
The earliest indisputable extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the [[Arabic script]], recorded by the Turkish traveller [[Evliya Çelebi]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gippert |first=Jost |title=Caucasian Perspectives |publisher=Lincom |date=1992 |isbn=978-3-929075-01-4 |editor-last=Hewitt |editor-first=George |location=München |page=9 |language=en |chapter=The Caucasian Language Material in Evliya Çelebi's 'Travel Book'}}</ref> Abkhaz has been used as a literary language for only about 100 years.

It was suggested that certain inscriptions on [[Pottery of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek pottery]] which had been considered nonsense are in fact written in Abkhaz-Adydge languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mayor |first1=Adrienne |last2=Colarusso |first2=John |last3=Saunders |first3=David |date=2014 |title=Making Sense of Nonsense Inscriptions Associated with Amazons and Scythians on Athenian Vases |journal=Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens |language=en |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=447–493 |doi=10.2972/hesperia.83.3.0447|s2cid=8068881 }}</ref> The methodology of the research was criticised and the results called improbable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kassian |first=Alexei |date=December 2016 |title=Un-Making Sense of Alleged Abkhaz-Adyghean Inscriptions on Ancient Greek Pottery |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=177–198 |doi=10.1163/15700577-12341301}}</ref>

In 1918, [[Tbilisi State University]] became the first institution of higher education to teach Abkhazian language. The founders of the university began to take care of the development and scientific study of the Abkhazian language. At the meeting of the Council of Professors held at Tbilisi State University in 1918, [[Ivane Javakhishvili]] noted the scientific importance of studying Caucasian languages. In 1918, by the decision of the Council of Professors, Petre Charaia was invited to teach the Abkhazian language, and from 1925, this mission was continued by [[Dmitry Gulia|Dimitri Gulia]] and [[Simon Janashia]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 October 2020 |title=Apkhazuri enis dghe tsu-shi |script-title=ka:აფხაზური ენის დღე თსუ-ში |language=ka |trans-title=Abkhazian Language Day at TSU |work=www.tsu.ge |url=https://www.tsu.ge/ka/news/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%A6%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%97%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3-%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98 |access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2018 |title=Ketevan tsikhelashvili: "1918 ts'els, tbilisis sakhelmts'ipo universit'et'is daarsebisas, misma damaarsebelma mamebma, pakt'obrivad tavidanve daits'q'es imaze zrunva, rom universit'et'shi shesadzlebeli q'opiliq'o apkhazuri da osuri enebis shests'avla" |script-title=ka:ქეთევან ციხელაშვილი: "1918 წელს, თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის დაარსებისას, მისმა დამაარსებელმა მამებმა, ფაქტობრივად თავიდანვე დაიწყეს იმაზე ზრუნვა, რომ უნივერსიტეტში შესაძლებელი ყოფილიყო აფხაზური და ოსური ენების შესწავლა" |language=ka |trans-title=Ketevan Tsikhelashvili: "When Tbilisi State University Was Founded in 1918, Its Founding Fathers Actually Took Care of the Possibility of Studying Abkhazian and Ossetian Languages at the University from the Very Beginning." |work=Sherigebisa da samokalako tanasts’orobis sak’itkhebshi sakartvelos sakhelmts’ipo minist’ris ap’arat’i |url=https://smr.gov.ge/ge/news/read/1176/ |access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref>

== Status ==
Both Georgian and Abkhaz law enshrines an official status of the Abkhaz language in Abkhazia.

The 1992 law of Georgia, reiterated in the 1995 [[Constitution of Georgia (country)|constitution]], grants Abkhaz the status of second official language in the territory of Abkhazia — along with [[Georgian language|Georgian]].

In November 2007, the de facto authorities of Abkhazia adopted a new law "on the state language of the Republic of Abkhazia" that mandates Abkhaz as the language of official communication. According to the law, all meetings held by the president, parliament, and government must be conducted in Abkhaz (instead of Russian, which is currently a de facto administrative language) from 2010, and all state officials will be obliged to use Abkhaz as their language of everyday business from 2015. Some, however, have considered the implementation of this law unrealistic and concerns have been made that it will drive people away from Abkhazia and hurt the independent press due to a significant share of non-Abkhaz speakers among ethnic minorities as well as Abkhaz themselves, and a shortage of teachers of Abkhaz. The law is an attempt to amend a situation where up to a third of the ethnic Abkhaz population are no longer capable of speaking their ethnic language, and even more are unable to read or write it; instead, Russian is the language most commonly used in public life at present.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gogorian |first=Anahid |date=20 December 2007 |title=Abkhaz Worried by Language Law |url=http://iwpr.net/?p=crs&s=f&o=341580&apc_state=henpcrs |website=Institute for War and Peace Reporting |language=en |id=Caucasus Reporting Service No. 424}}</ref>

== Dialects ==
=== Classification ===
Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:<ref>Bert Vaux, 1997. The Phonetics and Phonology of Secondary Articulations in Abkhaz.</ref>
* '''Abzhywa''', spoken in the Caucasus, and named after the historical area of [[Abzhywa]] (Абжьыуа), sometimes referred to as '''Abzhui''', the [[Russian language|Russified]] form of the name (''Abzhuiski dialekt'', derived from the Russian form of the name for the area, {{lang|ru|Абжуа}}).
* '''[[Bzyb dialect|Bzyb]]''' or Bzyp, spoken in the Caucasus and in Turkey, and named after the [[Bzyb (region)|Bzyb]] ({{langx|ab|Бзыԥ|links=no}}) area.
* '''Sadz''', nowadays spoken only in Turkey, formerly also spoken between the rivers [[Bzyb River|Bzyp]] and Khosta.

The [[literary language]] is based on the Abzhywa dialect.<ref>{{Cite web|title=АБХАЗСКИЙ ЯЗЫК • Большая российская энциклопедия - электронная версия|url=https://bigenc.ru/linguistics/text/5199578|access-date=28 August 2021|website=bigenc.ru}}</ref>

Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to [[Viacheslav Chirikba|Chirikba]] (1996):<ref>{{harvp|Chirikba|1996}}</ref>{{rp|xv}}

*Common Abkhaz (Proto-Abkhaz)
**North Abkhaz
***''Tapanta''
**''Ashkharywa''
**South Abkhaz
***Southwestern
****''Sadz''
***Southeastern
****''Ahchypsy'', ''Bzyp''
****''Tsabal'', ''Abzhywa''

=== General characteristics ===
In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than the standard Abzhywa dialect.<ref>V.A. Chirkba 2003. Page 12</ref> The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are the basis for literary Abaza are spoken in [[Karachay-Cherkessia]], while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in [[Turkey]] due to [[Russo-Circassian War|Russian invasions]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hewitt|first=George|title=The Abkhazians|publisher=SMP|year=1998|location=United States|pages=167}}</ref><ref>V.A. Chirikba 1996. Sadz, an Abkhaz Dialect in Turkey.</ref><ref>V.A. Chirikba 1996. A dictionary of common Abkhaz. Page II</ref> While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact.<ref>{{Cite book|last=V.A|first=Chirikba|title=Abkhaz|year=2003|pages=11–14}}</ref> Bzyp contains the most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]], specially [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]]; Sadz on the other hand has more words from [[Circassian languages|Circassian]]. Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian.

== Phonology ==
{{main|Abkhaz phonology}}

===Consonants===
Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]/[[voicelessness|voiceless]]/[[ejective consonant|ejective]] and [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]]/[[labialization|labialized]]/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several [[allophone]]s depending on the palatal and/or [[labial consonant|labial]] quality of adjacent consonants.

Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives are unique to the Bzyp dialect.

The consonants highlighted in <span style="color:red;">red</span> and in brackets are the 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.19</ref>

{| + class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ class="nowrap" | Consonant phonemes
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | 
! rowspan=2 | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[palatoalveolar consonant|Palato-<br />alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br />palatal]]
! rowspan=2 | [[retroflex consonant|Retro-<br />flex]]
! colspan="3" |[[velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="5" |[[uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! colspan=2 | [[pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
|- class=small
! {{Small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
!{{small|[[Sibilant consonant|sib.]]}}
! {{Small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{Small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{Small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{Small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{small|[[Pharyngealization|phar.]]}}
! {{Small|lab. + phar.}}
! {{Small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]/
[[Affricate]]
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}}
| {{IPA link|tʼ}}
| {{IPA link|tʷʼ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(t͡pʼ)}}</span>
|{{IPA link|t͡sʼ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃʼ}}
|
|<span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|t͡ɕʼ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
|{{IPA link|t͡ɕʷʼ}} <span style="color:red;">(t͡ɕᶠ’)</span>
|{{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂʼ}}
| {{IPA link|kʼ}}
|{{IPA link|kʲʼ}}
| {{IPA link|kʷʼ}}
| {{IPA link|qʼ}}
|{{IPA link|qʲʼ}}
| {{IPA link|qʷʼ}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}}
| {{IPA link|tʷʰ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(t͡pʰ)}}</span>
|{{IPA link|t͡sʰ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}
|
|<span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|t͡ɕʰ}}</span><span style="color:blue;">'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
|{{IPA link|t͡ɕʷʰ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(t͡ɕᶠ)}}</span>
|{{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂʰ}}
| {{IPA link|kʰ}}
|{{IPA link|kʲʰ}}
| {{IPA link|kʷʰ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|dʷ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(d͡b)}}</span>
|{{IPA link|d͡z}}
|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|
|<span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|d͡ʑ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
|{{IPA link|d͡ʑʷ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(d͡ʑᵛ)}}</span>
|{{IPA link|ɖ͡ʐ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʲ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡʷ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|ʃʷ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(ʃᶣ)}}</span>
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|ɕ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
| <span style="color:#008000;">{{IPA link|ɕʷ}}''{{Efn|Found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa.|name=no-abzhywa|group=lower-greek}}''</span> <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(ɕᶠ)}}</span>
| {{IPA link|ʂ}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|χ}}
|{{IPA link|χʲ}}
| {{IPA link|χʷ}}
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|χˤ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|χˤʷ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
| {{IPA link|ħ}}
| {{IPA link|ħʷ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(ħᶣ)}}</span>
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|v}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ʒʷ}} <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(ʒᶣ)}}</span>
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA link|ʑ}}'''{{Efn|Unique to the Bzyp dialect|name=bzyp|group=lower-greek}}'''</span>
| <span style="color:#008000;">{{IPA link|ʑʷ}}''{{Efn|Found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa.|name=no-abzhywa|group=lower-greek}}''</span> <span style="color:red;">{{IPA|(ʑᵛ)}}</span>
| {{IPA link|ʐ}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ʁ}}
|{{IPA link|ʁʲ}}
| {{IPA link|ʁʷ}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɥ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
{{Notelist|group=lower-greek}}

===Vowels===
The nature of the vowels of Abkhaz is not clear. Some linguists,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chirikba|first=A. Viacheslav|title=Abkhaz|year=2003|pages=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vaux|first=Bert|title=The Phonetics and Phonology of Secondary Articulations in Abkhaz|journal=10th Non-Slavic Languages Conference|pages=2|citeseerx=10.1.1.17.6362}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hewitt|first=B.G.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/18961122|title=Abkhaz|date=1989|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-03883-9|oclc=18961122}}</ref> characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree [[vertical vowel system]]; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]]. The quality of 'ә' in this case, is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ class="nowrap" | 
!
!Vowel
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|ɨ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|a}}
|}
Other linguists<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pozdnyakov|first=V.I.|date=2017|title=ФОНОЛОГО-ФОНЕТИЧЕСКАЯ СИСТЕМА ЯЗЫКА – ОСНОВА ОБУЧЕНИЯ БИЛИНГВА ВТОРОМУ ЯЗЫКУ|url=https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=30456371|journal=АБХАЗСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ|pages=420}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Грамматика абхазского языка : Фонетика и морфология|pages=13–14}}</ref> however, mainly Russian ones, describe the vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ class="nowrap" |
!
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ə}}
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|}

== Writing system ==
{{Main|Abkhaz alphabet}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2019}}

Abkhaz has used the [[Cyrillic script]] since 1862. The first alphabet was a 37-character [[Cyrillic]] alphabet invented by Baron [[Peter von Uslar]]. In 1909 a 55-letter Cyrillic alphabet was used. A 75-letter Latin script devised by a Russian/Georgian linguist [[Nikolai Marr]] lasted for 2 years 1926–1928 (during the [[Latinisation in the Soviet Union|Latinization campaign]]). The [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian script]] was adopted and used between 1938 and 1954, after that the initial [[Cyrillic]] alphabet, designed in 1892 by [[Dmitry Gulia]] together with Konstantin Machavariani and modified in 1909 by Aleksey Chochua, was restored to use.

Cyrillic script:
{| class="wikitable"
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | А а <br /> {{IPAblink|a}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Б б <br /> {{IPAblink|b}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | В в <br /> {{IPAblink|v}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Г г <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гь гь <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡʲ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гә гә <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӷ ӷ/Ҕ ҕ <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӷь ӷь/Ҕь ҕь <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁʲ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӷә ӷә/Ҕә ҕә <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Д д <br /> {{IPAblink|d}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дә дә <br /> {{IPAblink|dʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Е е <br /> {{IPAblink|e̞/aj/ja}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ж ж <br /> {{IPAblink|ʐ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жь жь <br /> {{IPAblink|ʒ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жә жә <br /> {{IPAblink|ʒʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | З з <br /> {{IPAblink|z}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[Abkhazian Dze|Ӡ ӡ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡z}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӡә ӡә <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡ʑʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | И и <br /> {{IPA|[i/jə/əj]}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | К к <br /> {{IPAblink|kʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кь кь <br /> {{IPAblink|kʲʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кә кә <br /> {{IPAblink|kʷʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қ қ <br /> {{IPAblink|kʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қь қь <br /> {{IPAblink|kʲʰ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қә қә <br /> {{IPAblink|kʷʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟ ҟ <br /> {{IPAblink|qʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟь ҟь <br /> {{IPAblink|qʲʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟә ҟә <br /> {{IPAblink|qʷʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Л л <br /> {{IPAblink|l}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | М м <br /> {{IPAblink|m}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Н н <br /> {{IPAblink|n}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | О о <br /> {{IPAblink|o̞/aw/wa}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | П п <br /> {{IPAblink|pʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ԥ ԥ/Ҧ ҧ <br /> {{IPAblink|pʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Р р <br /> {{IPAblink|r}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | С с <br /> {{IPAblink|s}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Т т <br /> {{IPAblink|tʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Тә тә <br /> {{IPAblink|tʷʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҭ ҭ <br /> {{IPAblink|tʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҭә ҭә <br /> {{IPAblink|tʷʰ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | У у <br /> {{IPA|[u/wə/əw]}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ф ф <br /> {{IPAblink|f}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Х х <br /> {{IPAblink|χ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хь хь <br /> {{IPAblink|χʲ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хә хә <br /> {{IPAblink|χʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҳ ҳ <br /> {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҳә ҳә <br /> {{IPAblink|ħʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ц ц <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡sʰ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Цә цә <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ɕʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҵ ҵ <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡sʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҵә ҵә <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ɕʷ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ч ч <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʃʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҷ ҷ <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʃʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҽ ҽ <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʂʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҿ ҿ <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʂʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ш ш <br /> {{IPAblink|ʂ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Шь шь <br /> {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Шә шә <br /> {{IPAblink|ʃʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ы ы <br /> {{IPAblink|ə}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҩ ҩ <br /> {{IPAblink|ɥ/ɥˤ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Џ џ <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡ʐ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Џь џь <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ь ь <br /> {{IPAblink|ʲ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ә ә <br /> {{IPAblink|ʷ}}
|}

Latin script:
{| class="wikitable"
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | a <br /> {{IPAblink|a}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | b <br /> {{IPAblink|b}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | c <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡sʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[C with descender|<span style="position: relative; display: inline-block;">c<span style="position: absolute; bottom: 0.1em; right: 0.1em;">&#x0329;</span></span>]] <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡s’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | d <br /> {{IPAblink|d}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[đ]]<br /> {{IPAblink|dʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | e <br /> {{IPAblink|e̞/aj/ja}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | f <br /> {{IPAblink|f}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="{{mirrorH}}">f</span> <br>{{IPAblink|ʃʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | g <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size: 1em; display:inline-block;">g<span style="margin-left: -0.22em;">l</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|ɖ͡ʐ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | gı <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡʲ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | gu <br /> {{IPAblink|ɡʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ƣ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ƣı <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁʲ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ƣu <br /> {{IPAblink|ʁʷ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | h <br /> {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ħ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|ħʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | i <br /> {{IPA|[i/jə/əj]}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | j <br /> {{IPAblink|ʒʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | k <br /> {{IPAblink|kʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | kı <br /> {{IPAblink|kʲʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ku <br /> {{IPAblink|kʷʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ⱪ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|k’}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ⱪı <br /> {{IPAblink|kʲ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ⱪu <br /> {{IPAblink|kʷ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | l <br /> {{IPAblink|l}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | m <br /> {{IPAblink|m}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | n <br /> {{IPAblink|n}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | o <br /> {{IPAblink|o}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | p <br /> {{IPAblink|pʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ꞅ<br /> {{IPAblink|p’}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | q <br /> {{IPAblink|q’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | qı <br /> {{IPAblink|qʲ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | qu <br /> {{IPAblink|qʷ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ꝗ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | r <br /> {{IPAblink|r}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | s <br /> {{IPAblink|s}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |<span style="position: relative; display: inline-block;">s<span style="position: absolute; bottom: 0.1em; right: 0.1em;">̩</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|ʂ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[File:Latin capital letter caucasian long S.svg|10x10px|link=Long s]]<br /> {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | t <br /> {{IPAblink|tʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="position: relative; display: inline-block;">t<span style="position: absolute; bottom: 0.10em; left: 0.3em;">̩</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|tʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px; overflow:hidden;" | <span style="font-size: 1em; display:inline-block;">т<span style="margin-left: -0.35em;">ᴘ</span></span><br /> {{IPAblink|tʷʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size: 1em; display:inline-block;">ҭ<span style="margin-left: -0.35em;">ᴘ</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʷʼ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | u <br /> {{IPA|[u/wə/əw]}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | v <br /> {{IPAblink|v}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | x <br /> {{IPAblink|χ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | xı <br /> {{IPAblink|χʲ}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | xu <br /> {{IPAblink|χʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | y <br /> {{IPAblink|ɥ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | z <br /> {{IPAblink|z}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ⱬ]]<br /> {{IPAblink|d͡ʑʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[ƶ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|ʐ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[Ezh|ʒ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|d͡z}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size: 1em; display:inline-block;">ч<span style="margin-left: -0.25em;">ᴘ</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|ʈ͡ʂʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size: 1em; display:inline-block;">ҷ<span style="margin-left: -0.25em;">ᴘ</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|ʈ͡ʂ’}}
|-
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="{{mirrorH}}">[[Reversed ge|г]]</span> <br /> {{IPAblink|ʒ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="{{mirrorH}}">ғ</span> <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ɕʷ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="{{mirrorH}}; position: relative;">г<span style="{{mirrorH}}; position: absolute; margin-left: -0.37em; top: 0.2em;">j</span></span> <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ɕʷ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | [[Turned h|ɥ]] <br /> {{IPAblink|t͡ʃʰ}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="display: inline-block; transform: rotate(180deg); text-align: center; margin-bottom: -50px;">ħ</span><br>{{IPAblink|t͡ʃ’}}
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ə <br /> {{IPAblink|ə}}
|}

===Unicode===
The Latin alphabet in Abkhaz is currently not in Unicode. Its inclusion was proposed in 2011. [http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11360-soviet-latin.pdf]

== Grammar ==
{{cleanup lang|date=June 2022}}
Typical of Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz is an [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] language that relies heavily on affixation.<ref>Chirikba, Viacheslav (2003). ''Abkhaz'' LINCOM Europa, p.22.</ref> It has an [[Ergative-absolutive alignment|ergative-absolutive]] typology, such that the subject of an intransitive verb functions identically to the object of a [[Transitive verb|transitive]] verb.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.48">Chirikba 2003, p.48</ref> Notably, Abkhaz expresses ergativity entirely through the ordering of subjects and objects within verb constructions<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.48"/> rather than through overt [[Grammatical case|case marking]] as most other ergative languages do.<ref>Hewitt, George (2008). "Cases, arguments, verbs in Abkhaz, Georgian and Mingrelian." ''Case and Grammatical Relations: Studies in Honor of Bernard Comrie'', edited by Greville G. Corbett and Michael Noonan, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p.80</ref>

All Latin transliterations in this section utilize the system explicated in Chirikba (2003) (see [[Abkhaz alphabet]] for the details).<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.18-21</ref>

=== Verbs ===
<!-- this hidden section is needed for the interlinear glossing to work correctly -->
<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
DETR:detrimental
BENF:benefactive
PREV:preverb
SPREV:stem preverb
EXT:extension
MSD:masdar
RECI:reciprocal</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

Abkhaz [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] features a highly complex verb system that could be called a "sentence in miniature."<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.37">Chirikba 2003, p.37</ref> Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a "verbocentric" language wherein verbs occupy the "central part of the morphology."<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.22">Chirikba 2003, p.22</ref> However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology is highly regular.<ref>Hewitt, George (1999). "Morphology Revisited: Some Peculiarities of the Abkhaz Verb." ''Studies in Caucasian Linguistics'' edited by Helma van den Berg, Leiden: CNWS, p.197</ref>

Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as [[Dynamic verb|dynamic and stative]].

Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп (''d-x˚əčә́-wə-p'' - "she is a child").<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.41">Chirikba 2003, p.41</ref> Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess the full range of [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]] and [[Grammatical tense|tense]] forms, in contrast to statives, which do not.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.41"/>

Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.41"/>

Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is [[Finite verb|finite]] versus non-finite, referring to the duration of the action{{Clarify|reason=Usually, finite in the context of verbs means conjugated. This seems to be expressed in the next sentence as well. If the author intends to indicate that Abkhaz verbs carry information about the duration of the circumstance, event, development or action described by a verb, please specify this.|date=May 2024}}. Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form [[dependent clause]]s.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.41"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
|'''Finite'''||{{lang|ab|дызбеит}}||"I saw him/her""
|-
|'''Non-Finite'''||{{lang|ab|избаз}}||"whom I saw"
|}

Verb stems can be derived in a number of ways, including [[Compound (linguistics)|compounding]], affixation, [[reduplication]] or conversion from another part of speech.<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.54-55</ref>

Roughly equivalent to the infinitive,<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.37"/> or to a so-called "verbal noun,"<ref>Hewitt, George (1979). ''The Relative Clause in Abkhaz (Abžui Dialect)''. Lingua 47, p.173</ref> the '''Masdar''' form of the verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра (''-ra'') for a dynamic verb and -заара (''-zaara'') for a stative.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.55</ref>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|аԥхьара
|á-px’a-ra
|ART-read-MSD
|"to read/be reading"}}

Various prefixes can be added to the Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.37"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|аԥибаҽра
|a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra
|ART-PREV-RECI-break-MSD
|"breaking each other"}}

However, the fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are "templatic," with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific "slot" or "position" within the broader verb template.<ref>Kathman, David (1993). ''Expletive Verb Marking in Abkhaz''. Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 19, p.194</ref> Verbs are thus formed by the addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, [[Grammatical person|person]] and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.37"/> There is a high degree of [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] between verbs and other parts of speech.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.37"/> Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows:
::[First Position]+[Second Position]+[Third Position]+[Indirect Object]+[Reflexive]+[Free Preverb]+[Stem Preverb]+[Agent]+[Negation]+[Causative]+STEM+[Extension]+[Number]+[Aspect]+[Tense]+[Negation]+[Ending Suffixes]<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.37-39</ref>

Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below.

'''First Position'''

The first prefixing element of the verb complex expresses either the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or the [[Object (grammar)|direct object]] of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.40</ref> These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that do not contain them. The rules for using them are the following:<ref>{{Cite book|last=I︠A︡kovlev|first=N.F.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/163620826|title=Грамматика абхазского литературного языка|date=2006|work=Alashara|oclc=163620826}}, p.157-158</ref>
# If the prefix is followed by a consonant cluster{{Clarify|reason=Does и = jə constitute a consonant? (Referring to fourth example.)|date=April 2024}}, the long form shall be used.
# If the stress falls on the prefix, the long form shall be used
# If the prefix is not followed by a consonant cluster, the short form shall be used.
# If the stress does not fall on the prefix, the short form shall be used.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" | Person
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Gender
! colspan="2" | Absolutive
! colspan="2" | Oblique
! colspan="2" | Ergative
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|sg.|Singular|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|pl.|Plural|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|sg.|Singular|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|pl.|Plural|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|sg.|Singular|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|pl.|Plural|}}
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | 1st
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | &nbsp;
| с(ы)-
| ҳ(а)-
| с(ы)-
| ҳ(а)-
| с(ы)- / з(ы)-
| ҳ(а)- / аа-
|-
| rowspan="3" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | 2nd
| rowspan="2" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|H|Human|}}
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"| {{abbr|M|Male|}}
| у(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | шә(ы)-
| у(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | шә(ы)-
| у(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | шә(ы)- / жә(ы)-
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|F|Female|}}
| б(ы)-
| б(ы)-
| б(ы)-
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|NH|Non-Human|}}
| у(ы)-
| у(ы)-
| у(ы)-
|-
| rowspan="3" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | 3rd
| rowspan="2" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|H|Human|}}
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|M|Male|}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | д(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | и(ы)-
| и(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | р(ы)- / д(ы)-
| и(ы)-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | р(ы)- / д(ы)-
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" | {{abbr|F|Female|}}
| л(ы)-
| л(ы)-
|- style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|NH|Non-Human|}}
| style="text-align:center;" | и(ы)-
| style="text-align:center;" | а-
| style="text-align:center;" | (н)а-
|}

It is also possible for the [[Possession (linguistics)|possessive]] prefix ҽы́- (''čə́-'') in a reflexive construction or the relative prefix иы́- (''jә́-'') in a non-finite construction to occupy this position.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38">Chirikba 2003, p.38</ref>

Example of an absolutive construction with the intransitive subject in the first slot highlighted<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|'''с'''цоит
|'''s'''-cá-wa-jt
|'''I(S)'''-go-PRES:DYN-FIN
|"'''I''' go."}}

Example of an ergative construction with the direct object in the first slot highlighted<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|'''и'''збоит
|'''jə'''-z-ba-wá-jt
|'''it(DO)'''-I(A)-see-PRES:DYN-FIN
|"I see '''it'''."}}

Example of a reflexive construction with the possessive prefix in the first slot<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|лҽылшьуеит
|'''l'''-čә́-l-šʹ-wa-jt
|'''her(POSS)'''-REFL-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
|"She kills '''her'''self."}}

'''Second Position'''

The second position is occupied by the indirect object or by the prefix аи- (''aj-'') for [[Reciprocal pronoun|reciprocal]] pronouns equivalent to "each other" or "one another" in English.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|и'''лы'''сҭеит
|jə-'''lә́'''-s-ta-ø-jt
|it(DO)-'''to&nbsp;her(IO)'''-I(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"I gave it '''to her.'''"}}

'''Third Position'''

This position accommodates a number of prefixes.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Preposition
! Prefix
|-
| Relational
| а́-
|-
| Benefactive
| зы́- (''zə́-'')
|-
| Detrimental
| цәы́- (''c°ə́-'')
|-
| Non-Volitional
| а́мха- (''ámxa-'')
|-
| Comitative
| ц- (''c-'')
|-
| Potential
| з- (''z-'')
|-
| Relative
| шы́- (''šə́-'')
|-
| Reciprocal
| аи- (''aj-'')
|}

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|ис'''цәы'''лгеит
|jə-s-'''c°ə́-'''-l-ga-ø-jt
|it(DO)-me-'''DETR'''-she-take-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"She took it from me '''against my will.'''"}}

'''Second Indirect Object'''

Any indirect object occurring after the one in the second position occupies this position instead; a possessive prefix of stative verbs can also be placed here.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|исыз'''лы'''иҭеит
|jə-sə-z-'''lә́'''-j-ta-ø-jt
|it(DO)-me(IO)-BENF-'''her(IO)'''-he(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"He gave it '''to her''' for me."}}

'''Reflexive'''

Where a possessive prefix exists in the first position, the [[Reflexive pronoun|reflexive]] prefix is placed here.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|лҽылшьуеит
|l-'''čә́'''-l-šʹ-wa-jt
|her(POSS)-'''REFL'''-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
|"She kills her'''self.'''"}}

'''Free Preverb'''

This position is occupied by preverbal elements which are not an explicit part of the verb stem.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|днатәеит
|d-'''na'''-t’º-á-ø-jt
|(s)he-'''PREV('thither')'''-sit-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"(S)he sat down (for a moment)."}}

'''Stem Preverb'''

Preverbal elements that are explicitly attached to the verb stem take this position.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|иҟасҵоит
|jə-'''q’a'''-s-c’a-wá-jt
|it-'''SPREV'''-I-do-PRES:DYN-FIN
|"I am doing it."}}

'''Agent'''

The agreement marker corresponding to the agent (the subject of a transitive verb) takes this position.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|илы'''с'''ҭеит
|jə-lә́-'''s'''-ta-ø-jt
|it(DO)-to&nbsp;her(IO)-'''I(A)'''-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"'''I''' gave it to her."}}

'''Negation (Dynamic)'''

The [[Affirmation and negation|negation]] prefix m- occupies this position in a dynamic verb construction.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|иҟасымҵе́ит
|jə-q’a-sə-'''m'''-c’á-ø-jt
|it(DO)-SPREV-I(A)-'''NEG'''-do-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"I did '''not''' do it."}}

'''Causative'''

The [[causative]] prefix r- takes the final position before the verb stem.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.38"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|исзы́мырҽеит
|jə-s-zә́-mə-'''r'''-čaj-ø-jt
|it(DO)-I(A)-POT-NEG-'''CAUS'''-good-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"I did not manage to make it better."}}

'''Extension'''

The first of the suffixing elements expresses adverbial information relating to "inside" (-la) or "outside" (-aa).<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.39">Chirikba 2003, p.39</ref>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|иаҭа́игалеит
|jə-tá-j-ga-'''la'''-ø-jt
|it(DO)-SPREV-he(A)-bring-'''EXT'''-AOR-DYN:FIN
|"He brought it '''inside.'''"}}

'''Number'''
The suffix -kºá pluralizes a stative verb.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.39"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|итәақәаз
|jə-t’ºá-'''kºá'''-z
|REL-sit-'''PL'''-PAST:STAT:NFIN
|"Those who were sitting."}}

'''Aspect'''

Several aspect markers occupy this position as suffixes.<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.53-54</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Aspect
! Suffix
|-
| Progressive
| -уа (''-wa'')
|-
| Excessive
| -цәа (-''c°a'')
|-
| Habitual
| -ла (''-la'')
|-
| Repetitive
| -х
|-
| Emphatic
| -ӡ
|}

'''Tense'''

Several tense markers occupy this position, dependent upon whether the verb in question is stative or dynamic. Dynamic verbs have a richly developed tense paradigm incorporating tense and aspect distinctions. The table below illustrates these various dynamic tense forms using the verb агара (''agara'' – "to take").<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.44</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ||'''Finite'''||'''Non-Finite'''||'''Example'''||'''English'''
|-
|'''Present'''||-уа-ит(''-wá-jt’'')||-уа(''-wa'')||''дыргоит'' (''dərgawájt’'')||"They are taking him."
|-
|'''Aorist'''||-ит(''-jt’'')||-∅||''дырге́ит'' (''dərgájt’'')||"They took him."
|-
|'''Future 1'''||-п (''-p’'')||-ра (''-ra'')||''дыргап'' (''dərgáp’'')||"They will take him."
|-
|'''Future 2'''||-шт (''-št’'')||-ша (''-ša'')||''дыргашт'' (''dərgášt’'')||"They will probably take him."
|-
|'''Perfect'''||-ҳьа-ит (''-x’ájt’'')||-хьоу (''-x’áw'')||''дыргахьеит'' (''dərgax’ájt’'')||"They have taken him."
|-
|'''Imperfect'''||-уан (''-wán'')||-уаз (''-wáz'')||''дыргон'' (''dərgawán'')||"They took him."
|-
|'''Past Indefinite'''||-н (''-n'')||-з (''-z'')||''дырган'' (''dərgán'')||"They took him and then..."
|-
|'''Future Conditional 1'''||-рын (''-rә́n'')||-рыз (''-rəz'')||''дыргарын'' (''dərgarә́n'')||"They would take him."
|-
|'''Future Conditional 2'''||-шан (''-šan'')||-шаз (''-šaz'')||''дыргашан'' (''dərgášan'')||"They had to take him."
|-
|'''Pluperfect'''||-хьан (''-x’án'')||-хьаз (''-x’az'')||''дыргахьан'' (''dərgax’án'')||"They had taken him."
|}

Stative verbs, by contrast, lack this rich tense system, as illustrated below using the verb а́цәара (''ácºara'' - "to be sleeping").<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.44-45</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ||'''Finite'''||'''Non-Finite'''||'''Example'''||'''English'''
|-
|'''Past'''||-н||-з||''дыцәан'' (''dә́cºan'')||"he was sleeping."
|-
|'''Present'''||-уп||-у||''дыцәоуп'' (''dә́cºawp'')||"he is sleeping."
|}

'''Negation (Stative)'''

The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a stative verb construction.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.39"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|дтәам
|d-t’ºa-'''m'''
|(s)he-sit-'''NEG'''
|"(S)he is '''not''' sitting."}}

'''Ending Suffixes'''

The final position in the verb complex can accommodate any one of several mixed purpose markers.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.39"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Purpose
! Suffix
|-
| Dynamic-Finite
| -ит (''-jt''')
|-
| Stative-Finite
| -п (''-p''')
|-
| Conditional
| -р (''-r'')
|-
| Emphatic
| -еи (''-aj'')
|-
| Interrogative
| -ма (''-ma'')
|-
|Subjunctive
| -аа(и)т//-заа(и)т (''-aajt'//-zaajt''')
|}

The [[Imperative mood|'''imperative''']] takes a few possible forms, depending upon the type of verb. Dynamic verbs form the imperative by the addition of agreement suffixes to a bare verb stem; intransitives include the subject and indirect object makers, whereas transitives include the direct object and absolutive. Thus<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.68">Chirikba 2003, p.68</ref>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|шәихәаԥш
|š˚-jә́-x˚a-pš
|you:PL-him-look
|"(you pl) look at him!"}}

Stative verbs form the imperative simply by adding the durative suffix -z to the verb stem. Thus<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.68"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|Уҟаз!
|wә́-q’a-z
|be-DUR
|"be!"}}

Abkhaz lacks [[Grammatical voice|diathetic opposition]], and as such there is no true passive voice distinction.<ref>Hewitt 2008, p.82</ref>

=== Nouns ===
Like verbs, Abkhaz nouns are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a static noun stem.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.22"/> Noun stems can be derived according to several different processes, including compounding, reduplication, or the addition of a derivational affix.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.28</ref>

The affixes mark number, [[definiteness]] and possession, as well as some case-like elements.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.22"/> Taken as a whole, the entire morphological structure of the Abkhaz noun is as follows:

::[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+[Quantity]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Clitic]<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23">Chirikba 2003, p.23</ref>

As with verbs, not all of these elements can occur at the same time. The individual parts of noun morphology are addressed below.

'''Article Affixes'''

There is a range of definiteness in Abkhaz. Those [[article (grammar)|article]]s adhering to definite/generic categories appear as prefixes in the broader noun structure, whereas the indefinite is suffixed.<ref>Chirikba 2003, pp.23-24</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Affix
! Category
! Example
|-
| а-
| Generic
| ''ауаҩы́'' (''awajºә́'' - "person")
|-
| а́-
| Specific
| ''уи а́уаҩы'' (''wә́j áwajºә́'' - "this person")
|-
| -к
| Indefinite
| ''уаҩы́к'' (''wajºә́k'' - "some person")
|}

The absence of either article affix implies a zero reference implying universal quantifiers, or to express the total lack of a referent.

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|Уаҩы дсымбеит
|wajºә́ dsəmbáøjt
|"I saw nobody."<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.24"/>}}

Definite and indefinite affixes may appear together in the same noun, implying that the referents are meant as [[Collective noun|a group or body]].

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|аҽқәа́к
|ačkºák
|"one of the horses."<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.24"/>}}

There are some semantic differences in article usage between the different dialects of Abkhaz.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.24">Chirikba 2003, p.24</ref>

'''Inflectional Prefixes'''
[[File:Pronominal prefixes in Abkhaz.png|thumb|Pronominal prefixes in Abkhaz]]
These are possessive prefixes which express grammatical person and [[noun class]].<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/> They come in two forms, the full and short ones. The full ones contain the vowels inside the parenthesis, whereas the short ones do not.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Person
! Prefix
|-
| {{abbr|1st|First Person|}}
| с(ы)-
|-
| {{abbr|1st pl.|First Person Plural|}}
| ҳ(а)-
|-
| {{abbr|2nd H:F|Second Person Human Female|}}
| б(ы)-
|-
| {{abbr|2nd H:M|Second Person Human Male|}}
| у-
|-
| {{abbr|2nd NH|Second Person Non-Human|}}
| у-
|-
| {{abbr|2nd pl.|Second Person Plural|}}
| шә(ы)-
|-
| {{abbr|3rd H:F|Third Person Human Female|}}
| л(ы)-
|-
| {{abbr|3rd H:M|Third Person Human Male|}}
| и-
|-
| {{abbr|3rd NH|Third Person Non-Human|}}
| а-
|-
| {{abbr|3rd pl.|Third Person Plural|}}
| р(ы)-
|}

'''Quantifying Prefixes'''

These few prefixes add numeric information to the noun complex. Often, this takes the form of a numeral.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|ры'''х'''<u>ҩы</u>-ԥацәа
|rə'''''x'''<u>jºә́</u>''-pacºa
|"their '''three''' <u>(HC)</u> sons"}}

'''Inflectional Suffixes'''
These suffixes convey either plural number or case-like adverbial information. Plural markers are addressed further below; the other possible inflectional suffixes are the following:<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>

*The third-person singular non-human possessive marker, attached to a [[Locative case|locative]] or directional postposition
*Locative -ҿы́ (''-č’ә́'') or directional -хьы́ (''-x’ә́'') [[Preposition and postposition|postpositions]]
*[[Instrumental case|Instrumental]] suffix -ла (''-la'')
*Adverbial suffix -с (''-s''), as in: ''иашьас'' (''jaš’ás'' - "as a brother")<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25">Chirikba 2003, p.25</ref>
*Comparative suffix -ҵас (''-c’as''), as in: ''ҩнҵа́с'' (''jºənc’ás'' - "like a house")<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>
*[[Abessive case|Privative]] suffix -да (''-da''), as in: ''ҩны́да'' (''jºnә́da'' - "without a house")<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>
*Various coordinating suffixes

Inflectional suffixes can follow each other sequentially.

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|аҷкәы́нцәеи аҭы́ԥҳацәеи
|áč’k’ºəncºaj atә́phacºaj
|"boys and girls"<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>}}

'''Plural Suffixes'''

Abkhaz distinguishes singular and plural; the singular is unmarked, whereas the plural is indicated by noun class-dependent suffixes.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25"/> There are several pluralizing suffixes, but the two most commonly used refer generally to the human and non-human noun classes.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25"/> There are instances where explicitly human nouns take non-human plural markers.<ref>Hewitt, George (2010). ''Abkhaz: A Comprehensive Self-Tutor''. LINCOM Europa, p.31</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Suffix
! Noun Class
! Example
|-
| -цәа (''-cºa'')
| Human
| ''а́бацәа'' (''ábacºa'' – "fathers")
|-
| -қәа (''-kºa'')
| Non-Human
| ''аҽқәа́'' (''ačkºa'' - "horses")
|}

There are also several plural endings that are of much narrower use.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Suffix
! Example
! Usage
|-
| -аа
| ''а́ԥсуаа'' (''ápswaa'' - "Abkhazians")
| Collective, referring to ethnicities, groups
|-
| -(а)ра (''-(a)ra'')
| ''аса́ра'' (''asára'' - "lambs")
| Collective, with the added meaning of animal young (in some nouns with -s ending)
|-
| -рaa (''-raa'')
| ''а́браа'' (''ábraa'' - "parents of the sister-in-law")
| Delineating a group associated with the referent
|}

'''Clitic'''

The clitic -гьы (''-g’ə'') functions as an in-built [[Conjunction (grammar)|coordinating conjunction]].<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.23"/>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|сан'''гьы''' саб'''гьы'''
|sán'''g’ə''' sáb'''g’ə'''
|"my mother '''and''' my father"}}

'''Noun Class'''

Nouns in Abkhaz are classified broadly according to a human/non-human paradigm, with the human class itself further subdivided into masculine and feminine [[Grammatical gender|gender]].<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.24"/> Gender is a fairly weak concept in Abkhaz grammar, and gender distinctions undergo a fair degree of neutralization in several contexts, including personal pronouns, verb agreement and possession marking.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25"/> This class and gender system distinguishes Abkhaz from the other Northwest Caucasian languages.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.25"/>

'''Vocative Affixes'''

Although there is no special [[Vocative case|vocative]] declension, the prefix уа- (''wa-''), when attached to a noun stem, can express a vocative form.

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|Уанцәа́!
|wancºá
|"Oh Lord!"<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.26">Chirikba 2003, p.26</ref>}}

Similarly, the suffix -a can be added to a proper noun ending in a consonant to communicate [[Diminutive|respect and endearment]].

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|Зура́ба
|zurába
|"Dear Zurab" (given name)<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.26"/>}}

=== Pronouns ===
Abkhaz is a [[Pro-drop language|pro-drop]] language. Pronouns are not inflected, and verbal agreement is generally sufficient to indicate grammatical person.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.32</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" | Person
! colspan="2" | Gender
! colspan="2" | {{abbr|Sing.|Singular|}}
! colspan="2" | {{abbr|Pl.|Plural|}}
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;" | 1st
| colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | сарá
| colspan="2" | ҳарá
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | 2nd
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|H|Human|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|M|Male|}}
| colspan="2" | уарá
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | шәарá
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|F|Female|}}
| colspan="2" | барá
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|NH|Non-Human|}}
| colspan="2" | уарá
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | 3rd
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|H|Human|}}
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|M|Male|}}
| colspan="2" | иарá
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | дарá
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|F|Female|}}
| colspan="2" | ларá
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;" | {{abbr|NH|Non-Human|}}
| colspan="2" | иарá
|}

It is common in [[Colloquialism|everyday speech]] to use a short version of the pronoun which omits the suffix -рá (''-rá''), although this is done less frequently with third-person pronouns.

In addition to noun-marking, '''possession''' can be indicated by adding the suffix -тәы́ (''-t’˚ә́'') to the short version of a personal pronoun. Thus:
::''стәы́'' (''st’˚ә́'' - "mine")
::''лтәы́'' (''lt’˚ә́'' - "hers")<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.33">Chirikba 2003, p.33</ref>

'''Intensive''' pronouns are derived from short-form personal pronouns combined with the suffix -хаҭá (''-xatá''). These have a roughly reflexive meaning.
::сарá (''sará'' - "I")
::схаҭá (''sxatá'' - "I myself")<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.33"/>

=== Adjectives ===
Morphologically, adjectives are very similar to nouns, differing only in their syntactic function.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.29">Chirikba 2003, p.29</ref> Similarly to nouns, adjective stems can be derived by compounding, reduplication and affixation.<ref>Chirikba 2003, p.31</ref> When used [[Adjective#Attributive adjective|attributively]], adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicative adjectives, or those derived by suffixation, precede the noun.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.29"/> Adjectives are formed according to the following paradigm:

::[Definite Article]+[Inflectional Prefix]+STEM+[Inflectional Suffix]+[Indefinite Article]+[Adverbial Suffix]<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.29"/>

'''Inflectional Prefix'''

The possessive prefix r- is used to show possessive agreement.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.30">Chirikba 2003, p.30</ref>

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|'''р'''ҭоурыхтә ҭагылазаашьа
|'''r'''tawrә́xt’º tagә́lazaaš’a
|"'''their''' historical situation"}}

'''Adjective Suffixes'''

These suffixes are added to the adjective stem to show agreement with the noun being modified.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.30"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Agreement
! Suffix
|-
| Intensive
| -ӡа
|-
| Plural
| -кәа (''-k˚a'')
|-
| Instrumental
| -ла (''-la'')
|-
| Adverbial
| -с (''-s'')
|-
| Comparative
| -ҵас (''-c’as'')
|-
| Irreal
| -шәа (''-šºa'')
|-
| Privative
| -да (''-da'')
|}

The [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative]] form of an adjective is formed using the comparative particle аиҳá (''ajhá'' - "more"), which precedes the adjective. The superlative form is indicated by the intensifier suffix -ӡа.<ref name="Chirikba 2003, p.30"/> Thus:

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|аиҳа ибзиоу аҩны
|ajhá jəbzә́jaw ajºnә́ 
|"a better house"}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=4
|иҟаԥшӡа
|jəq’apšʒá
|"reddest"}}

== Sample text ==
===Original version===
{{lang|ab|Дарбанзаалак ауаҩы дшоуп ихы дақәиҭны. Ауаа зегь зинлеи патулеи еиҟароуп. Урҭ ирымоуп ахшыҩи аламыси, дара дарагь аешьеи аешьеи реиԥш еизыҟазароуп.}}<ref>{{Citation |url=http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_abk.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121221545/http://www.unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_abk.pdf |language=ab |access-date=17 May 2009 |archive-date=21 November 2008 |script-title=kk:Ауаҩытәыҩса изинқәа Зегьеицырзеиҧшу Адекларациа |url-status=dead |via=unicode.org}}</ref>

===Transliteration===
''{{Transliteration|ab|Darbanzaalak’ auaiwy dshoup’ ikhy daqwitny. Auaa zegj zinlei pat’ulei eiqaroup’. Urt irymoup’ akhshyiwi alamysi, dara daragj aesjei aesjei reipsh eizyqazaroup’.}}''

===[[ISO 9]] Romanization===
''{{Transliteration|ab|Darbanzaalak auaòy dšoup ihy dak̦a̋ițny. Auaa zegʹ zinlei patulei eik̄aroup. Urț irymoup ahšyòi alamysi, dara daragʹ aešʹei aešʹei reip̀š eizyk̄azaroup.|links=no}}''

===Translation===
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

===Phonetic transcription===
{{IPA|ab|darbanzaːlakʼ awaɥɨ tʂəʊpʼ jɨχɨ dakʷʰitʰnɨ ǁ awaː zəgʲ zinləɪ pʼatʼwɨləɪ əɪqʼarəʊpʼ ǁ wərtʰ jɨrɨməʊpʼ aχʂɨɥiː alamɨsiː ǀ dara daragʲ ajəʃəɪ ajəʃəɪ rəɪpʰʂ əɪzɨqʼazarəʊpʼ ǁ|}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="RC2010">Row 7 in {{Cite web |title=Prilozheniye 6: Naseleniye Rossiyskoy Federatsii po vladeniyu yazykami |script-title=ru:Приложение 6: Население Российской Федерации по владению языками |trans-title=Appendix 6: Population of the Russian Federation by Languages Used |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/per-itog/tab6.xls |publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service|Federal'naya sluzhba gosudarstvennoi statistiki]] |language=ru |format=XLS}}</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Chirikba |first=V. A. |title=A Dictionary of Common Abkhaz |date=1996 |location=Leiden |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chirikba |first=V. A. |title=Abkhaz |date=2003 |publisher=Lincom Europa |isbn=9783895861369 |series=Languages of the World/Materials 119 |location=Muenchen |language=en}}
* {{WALS|abk}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |title=Abkhaz: A Comprehensive Self-Tutor |date=2010 |publisher=Lincom Europa |isbn=978-3-89586-670-8 |location=München |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |title=Abkhaz: A Descriptive Grammar |date=1979 |publisher=North Holland |location=Amsterdam |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |chapter=Abkhaz |title=The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus |date=1989 |publisher=Caravan Books |editor-last=Greppin |editor-first=John |volume=2 |location=New York |pages=39–88 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |year=2008 |chapter=Cases, arguments, verbs in Abkhaz, Georgian and Mingrelian |title=Case and Grammatical Relations: Studies in Honor of Bernard Comrie |editor-first=Greville G. |editor-last=Corbett |editor-first2=Michael |editor-last2=Noonan |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=75–104}}
* {{cite book |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |year=1999 |chapter=Morphology Revisited: Some Peculiarities of the Abkhaz Verb |title=Studies in Caucasian Linguistics |editor-first=Helma |editor-last=van den Berg |location=Leiden |publisher=CNWS |pages=197–208}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hewitt |first=B. George |year=1979 |title=The Relative Clause in Abkhaz (Abžui Dialect) |journal=Lingua |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=151–188|doi=10.1016/0024-3841(79)90034-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Vaux |first1=Bert |first2=Zihni |last2=Psiypa |date=1997 |chapter=The Cwyzhy Dialect of Abkhaz |title=Harvard Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=6 |editor-first=Susumu |editor-last=Kuno |editor2-first=Bert |editor2-last=Vaux |editor3-first=Steve |editor3-last=Peter |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Linguistics Department |language=en}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ab}}
{{wikivoyage|Abkhaz phrasebook}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.abyzshwa.narod.ru/ Introduction, basic phrases and grammar and texts]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/abkhaz.htm Abkhaz alphabet and pronunciation (Omniglot)]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/encyclopedia/a/abkhaz.php Abkhaz at Language Museum]
* [http://www.kapba.de/A-Abtsara.html Example of Abkhaz language]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426090514/http://abc.marlamuter.ru/index.php/list/abhaz/1.xhtml Abkhaz-Russian On-Line Dictionary]
* [http://www.ethnic-cinema-country.ru/kalligrafia/ Ancient Adyghe Abkhaz–Abaza Ubykh alphabet]
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ncc\wcc&first=0 Abkhaz basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* [http://baltoslav.eu/apsua/index.php?mova=en Abkhaz text corpus]
* [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/ABK/abk.html Recordings of Abkhaz]
*{{Cite JIPA|author1=Andersson, Samuel |author2=Vaux, Bert |author3=Pysipa (Şener), Zihni|title=Cwyzhy Abkhaz|pages=1&ndash;21|doi=10.1017/S0025100320000390|printdate=2021-03-31|soundfiles=no}}

{{Languages of Georgia (country)}}
{{Northwest Caucasian languages}}
{{Languages of the Caucasus}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Abkhaz language| ]]
[[Category:Northwest Caucasian languages]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Abkhazia]]
[[Category:Languages of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 17th century]]
[[Category:Vertical vowel systems]]
[[Category:Languages written in Cyrillic script]]