Editing Acinetobacter

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Acinetobacter baumannii.JPG
| image_caption = ''Acinetobacter baumannii''
| taxon = Acinetobacter
| authority = Brisou & Prévot 1954
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Acinetobacter albensis]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter>{{cite journal|last1=Parte|first1=A.C.|title=Acinetobacter|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/acinetobacter}}</ref><br />
''[[Acinetobacter apis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter baylyi]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter>{{cite journal|last1=Parte|first1=A.C.|title=Acinetobacter|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/acinetobacter}}</ref><br />
''[[Acinetobacter beijerinckii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter bereziniae]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter bohemicus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter boissieri]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter bouvetii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter brisouii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter calcoaceticus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter celticus]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter chengduensis]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter colistiniresistens]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter courvalinii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter cumulans]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter defluvii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter dispersus]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter dijkshoorniae]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter equi]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter gandensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter gerneri]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter guangdongensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter guerrae]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter guillouiae]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter gyllenbergii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter haemolyticus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter harbinensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter indicus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter junii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter kookii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter lactucae]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter lanii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter larvae]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter lwoffii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter modestus]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter nectaris]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter nosocomialis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter oryzae]]''{{refn|name=oryzae-refs|<ref name="oryzae-JGI-GOLD">{{cite web | title=''Acinetobacter oryzae'' ANC 4261 - Project | website=[[Genomes OnLine Database]] (GOLD) | publisher=[[Joint Genome Institute]] (JGI) | url=http://gold.jgi.doe.gov/projects?id=Gp0139283 | access-date=2021-05-06}}</ref><ref name="oryzae-JGI-GP">{{cite web | title=Info - ''Acinetobacter oryzae'' ANC 4261 | url=http://genome.jgi.doe.gov/portal/AcioryANC4261/AcioryANC4261.info.html | website=[[Joint Genome Institute]] Genome Portal | access-date=2021-05-06}}</ref><ref name="oryzae-NCBI-Tax-Brows">{{cite web | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=742719 | title=Taxonomy Browser (''Acinetobacter oryzae'') | website=[[NCBI taxonomy database|NCBI Taxonomy Browser]] | access-date=2021-05-06}}</ref><ref name="LPSN-DSMZ">{{cite web | title=Species: ''Acinetobacter oryzae'' | website=LPSN ([[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]]) | publisher=DSMZ ([[Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen]]) | url=http://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/acinetobacter-oryzae | access-date=2021-05-06}}</ref>}}<br />
''[[Acinetobacter parvus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter pakistanensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter populi]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter portensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter proteolyticus]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter pittii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter piscicola]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter pragensis]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter proteolyticus]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter pseudolwoffii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter pullicarnis]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter pullorum]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter puyangensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter qingfengensis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter radioresistens]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter rudis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter schindleri]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter seifertii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter shaoyimingii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter soli]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter stercoris]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter tandoii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter tjernbergiae]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter towneri]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter ursingii]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter variabilis]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter venetianus]]''<br />
''[[Acinetobacter vivianii]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter wanghuae]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/><br />
''[[Acinetobacter wuhouensis]]''<ref name=Acinetobacter/>
}}

'''''Acinetobacter''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative]] bacteria belonging to the wider class of [[Gammaproteobacteria]]. ''Acinetobacter'' species are [[Oxidase test|oxidase-negative]], exhibit [[twitching motility]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bitrian|first1=Mariana|last2=González|first2=Rodrigo H.|last3=Paris|first3=Gaston|last4=Hellingwerf|first4=Klaas J.|last5=Nudel|first5=Clara B.|s2cid=42820743|date=2013-09-01|title=Blue-light-dependent inhibition of twitching motility in Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1: additive involvement of three BLUF-domain-containing proteins|journal=Microbiology |volume=159|issue=Pt 9|pages=1828–1841|doi=10.1099/mic.0.069153-0|doi-access=free |issn=1465-2080|pmid=23813679|hdl=11336/6600 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> and occur in pairs under magnification.

They are important [[soil life|soil organisms]], where they contribute to the [[Mineralization (soil)|mineralization]] of, for example, [[Aromaticity|aromatic compounds]]. ''Acinetobacter'' species are a key source of infection in debilitated patients in the hospital, in particular the species ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]''.

==Description==
Species of the genus ''Acinetobacter'' are [[Aerobic organism|strictly aerobic]], [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|nonfermentative]], [[Gram-negative]] [[Bacteria#Morphology|bacilli]]. They show mostly a [[Coccobacillus|coccobacillary]] morphology on nonselective agar. Rods predominate in fluid media, especially during early growth.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The morphology of ''Acinetobacter'' species can be quite variable in Gram-stained human clinical specimens, and cannot be used to differentiate ''Acinetobacter'' from other common causes of infection.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Most strains of ''Acinetobacter'', except some of the ''A. lwoffii'' strain, grow well on [[MacConkey agar]] (without salt). Although officially classified as not lactose-fermenting, they are often partially lactose-fermenting when grown on MacConkey agar. They are [[oxidase]]-negative, catalase-positive, indole-negative, [[motility|nonmotile]], and usually [[nitrate]]-negative.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Bacteria of the genus ''Acinetobacter'' are known to form intracellular inclusions of [[polyhydroxyalkanoates]] under certain environmental conditions (e.g. lack of elements such as phosphorus, nitrogen, or oxygen combined with an excessive supply of carbon sources).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

== Etymology ==
''Acinetobacter'' is a compound word from scientific Greek [α + κίνητο + βακτηρ(ία)], meaning nonmotile rod. The first element ''acineto-'' appears as a somewhat [[baroque]] rendering of the Greek [[morpheme]] ακίνητο-, commonly [[transliteration|transliterated]] in English is ''akineto-'', but actually stems from the French ''cinetique'' and was adopted directly into English.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} Nevertheless, the French word also originates from the Greek privative α + κίνησις (motion) confirming the same origin from a different path.

==Taxonomy==
The genus ''Acinetobacter'' comprises 38 validly named species.<ref name=Visca2011>{{cite journal |vauthors=Visca P, Seifert H, Towner KJ |title=Acinetobacter infection--an emerging threat to human health |journal=IUBMB Life |volume=63 |issue=12 |pages=1048–54 |date=December 2011 |pmid=22006724 |doi=10.1002/iub.534 |s2cid=45593914 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Identification ==
Identification of ''Acinetobacter'' species is complicated by lack of standard identification techniques. Initially, identification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as growth temperature, [[colony morphology]], growth medium, carbon sources, gelatin hydrolysis, glucose fermentation, among others. This method allowed identification of ''A. calcoaceticus–A. baumannii'' complex by the formation of smooth, rounded, mucoid colonies at 37&nbsp;°C. Closely related species could not be differentiated and individual species such as ''A. baumannii'' and ''Acinetobacter'' genomic species 3 could not be positively identified phenotypically.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Because routine identification in the clinical microbiology laboratory is not yet possible, ''Acinetobacter'' isolates are divided and grouped into three main complexes:{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
* ''Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex'': glucose-oxidising nonhemolytic (''A. baumannii'' can be identified by OXA-51 typing)
* ''Acinetobacter lwoffii'': glucose-negative nonhemolytic
* ''Acinetobacter haemolyticus'': [[Hemolysis (microbiology)|hemolytic]]

Different species of bacteria in this genus can be identified using fluorescence-lactose-denitrification to find the amount of acid produced by [[metabolism]] of [[glucose]]. The other reliable identification test at genus level is chromosomal DNA transformation assay. In this assay, a naturally competent tryptophan [[auxotrophic]] mutant of ''Acinetobacter baylyi'' (BD4 trpE27) is transformed with the total DNA of a putative ''Acinetobacter'' isolate and the transformation mixture is plated on a brain heart infusion agar. The growth is then harvested after incubation for 24 h at 30&nbsp;°C, plating on an ''Acinetobacter'' minimal agar (AMA), and incubating at 30&nbsp;°C for 108 h. Growth on the AMA indicates a positive transformation assay and confirms the isolate as a member of the genus ''Acinetobacter''. ''E. coli'' HB101 and ''A. calcoaceticus'' MTCC1921T can be used as the negative and positive controls, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rokhbakhsh-Zamin | first1 = F. | last2 = Sachdev | first2 = D.P. | last3 = Kazemi-Pour | first3 = N. | last4 = Engineer | first4 = A. | last5 = Zinjarde | first5 = S.S. | last6 = Dhakephalkar | first6 = P.K. | last7 = Chopade | first7 = B.A. | year = 2012 | title = Characterization of plant growth promoting traits of Acinetobacter species isolated from rhizosphere of Pennisetum glaucum | journal = J Microbiol Biotechnol | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 556–566 | doi = 10.4014/jmb.1012.12006 | pmid = 21715961 }}</ref>

Some of the molecular methods used in species identification are repetitive extragenic palindromic sequence-based PCR, ribotyping, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), random amplified polymorphic DNA, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), restriction and sequence analysis of tRNA and 16S-23S rRNA gene spacers and amplified 16S ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA)<!-- ? [1] -->. PFGE, AFLP, and ARDRA are validated common methods in use today because of their discriminative ability.<!-- [2,3]. --> However, most recent methods include multilocus sequence typing and multilocus PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, which are based on amplification of highly conserved housekeeping genes and can be used to study the genetic relatedness between different isolates.<ref>Antibiotic resistance is a major risk factor for epidemic behavior of Acinetobacter baumannii. ''Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol'' 2001; 22:284–288.</ref>

==Habitat==
''Acinetobacter'' species are widely distributed in nature, and commonly occur in [[soil]] and water.<ref name=Doughari2011>{{cite journal|author1=Doughari HJ |author2=Ndakidemi PA |author3=Human IS |author4=Benade S |title=The ecology, biology and pathogenesis of Acinetobacter spp.:an overview |journal=Microbes and Environments |date=2011 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=101–112 |pmid=21502736 |doi=10.1264/jsme2.me10179|doi-access=free }}</ref> Their ability to survive on moist and dry surfaces, as well as to survive exposure to various common disinfectants, allows some ''Acinetobacter'' species to survive in a hospital environment.<ref name=Doughari2011/> Furthermore, ''Acinetobacter'' species can grow at a broad range of temperatures, allowing them to survive in a broad array of environments.<ref name=Doughari2011/>

==Clinical significance==
<!--Intro concerning all Acinetobacter-->
''Acinetobacter'' is frequently isolated in [[nosocomial infection]]s, and is especially prevalent in [[intensive care unit]]s, where both sporadic cases and [[epidemic]] and [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] occurrences are common. ''A. baumannii'' is a frequent cause of [[Pneumonia#Hospital-acquired|hospital-acquired pneumonia]], especially of late-onset, [[ventilator-associated pneumonia]]. It can cause various other infections, including skin and wound infections, [[bacteremia]], and [[meningitis]], but ''A. lwoffi'' is mostly responsible for the latter.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

<!-- A. baumannii disease -->
Of the ''Acinetobacter'', ''A. baumannii'' is the greatest cause of human disease, having been implicated in a number of hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), secondary meningitis, infective endocarditis, and wound and burn infections.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dent Lemuel | first1 = L | last2 = Marshall | first2 = DR | last3 = Pratap | first3 = S | last4 = Hulette | first4 = RB | year = 2010 | title = Multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: a descriptive study in a city hospital | journal = BMC Infect Dis | volume = 10 | page = 196 | doi=10.1186/1471-2334-10-196| pmid = 20609238 | pmc = 2909240 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In particular, ''A. baumannii'' is frequently isolated as the cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to the [[intensive care unit]]. Risk factors include long-term intubation and tracheal or lung aspiration. In most cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the equipment used for artificial ventilation such as endotracheal tubes or bronchoscopes serve as the source of infection and result in the colonization of the lower respiratory tract by ''A. baumannii''. In some cases, the bacteria can go on to enter the bloodstream, resulting in bacteremia with mortality rates ranging from 32% to 52%. UTIs caused by ''A. baumannii'' appear to be associated with continuous catheterization, as well as antibiotic therapy. ''A. baumannii'' has also been reported to infect skin and soft tissue in traumatic injuries and postsurgical wounds. ''A. baumannii'' commonly infect burns and may result in complications owing to difficulty in treatment and eradication. Though less common, some evidence also links this bacterium to meningitis, most often following invasive surgery, and, in very rare cases, to community-acquired primary meningitis wherein the majority of the victims were children.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Siegman-Igra | first1 = Y | last2 = Bar-Yosef | first2 = S | last3 = Gorea | first3 = A | last4 = Avram | first4 = J | year = 1993 | title = Nosocomial Acinetobacter meningitis secondary to invasive procedures: report of 25 cases and review | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 17 | issue = 5| pages = 843–849 | doi=10.1093/clinids/17.5.843| pmid = 8286623 }}</ref> Case reports also link ''A. baumannii'' to endocarditis, keratitis, peritonitis, and very rarely fatal neonatal sepsis.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Falagas | first1 = ME | last2 = Karveli | first2 = EA | last3 = Kelesidis | first3 = I | last4 = Kelesidis | first4 = T | year = 2007 | title = Community acquired Acinetobacter infections | journal = Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis | volume = 26 | issue = 12| pages = 857–868 | doi=10.1007/s10096-007-0365-6| pmid = 17701432 | s2cid = 25898468 }}</ref>

<!-- A. baumannii resistance/resilience -->
The clinical significance of ''A. baumannii'' is partially due to its capacity to develop resistance against many available antibiotics. Reports indicate that it possesses resistance against broad-spectrum [[cephalosporin]]s, [[β-lactam antibiotic]]s, [[aminoglycosides]], and [[Quinolone antibiotic|quinolones]]. Resistance to [[carbapenem]]s is also being increasingly reported.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hu | first1 = Q | last2 = Hu | first2 = Z | last3 = Li | first3 = J | last4 = Tian | first4 = B | last5 = Xu | first5 = H | last6 = Li | first6 = J | year = 2011 | title = Detection of OXA-type carbapenemases and integrons among carbapenem-resistant Acinetobactor baumannii in a Teaching Hospital in China | journal = J Basic Microbiol | volume = 51 | issue = 5| pages = 467–472 | doi=10.1002/jobm.201000402| pmid = 21656808 | s2cid = 10955468 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first1 = Pierre Edouard | last1 = Fournier | last2 = Richet | first2 = H | year = 2006 | title = The epidemiology and control of Acinetobacter baumannii in healthcare facilities | doi =10.1086/500202 | pmid = 16447117 | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 42 | issue = 5| pages = 692–699 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ''A. baumannii'' can survive on the human skin or dry surfaces for weeks and is resistant to a variety of disinfectants, making it particularly easy to spread in a hospital setting.<ref name=Peleg2008>{{cite journal|title=''Acinetobacter baumannii'': Emergence of a Successful Pathogen |author1=Peleg AY |author2=Seifert H |author3=Paterson DL |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |date=July 2008 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=538–582 |pmc=2493088 |doi=10.1128/CMR.00058-07 |pmid=18625687}}</ref> Antibiotic resistance genes are often plasmid-borne, and plasmids present in ''Acinetobacter'' strains can be transferred to other pathogenic bacteria by [[horizontal gene transfer]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

<!-- Role in Allergy -->
In healthy individuals, ''Acinetobacter'' colonies on the skin correlate with low incidence of [[allergies]];<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hanski | first1 = I. | last2 = Von Hertzen | first2 = L. | last3 = Fyhrquist | first3 = N. | last4 = Koskinen | first4 = K. | last5 = Torppa | first5 = K. | last6 = Laatikainen | first6 = T. | last7 = Karisola | first7 = P. | last8 = Auvinen | first8 = P. | last9 = Paulin | first9 = L. | last10 = Makela | first10 = M. J. | last11 = Vartiainen | first11 = E. | last12 = Kosunen | first12 = T. U. | last13 = Alenius | first13 = H. | last14 = Haahtela | first14 = T. | title = Environmental biodiversity, human microbiota, and allergy are interrelated | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1205624109 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 109 | issue = 21 | pages = 8334–8339 | year = 2012 | pmid =  22566627| pmc = 3361383| bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.8334H | doi-access = free }}</ref> ''Acinetobacter'' is thought to be allergy-protective.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Debarry | first1 = J.
| last2 = Hanuszkiewicz | first2 = A.
| last3 = Stein | first3 = K.
| last4 = Holst | first4 = O.
| last5 = Heine | first5 = H.
| title = The allergy-protective properties of Acinetobacter lwoffii F78 are imparted by its lipopolysaccharide
| doi = 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02253.x
| journal = Allergy
| volume = 65
| issue = 6
| pages = 690–697
| year = 2009
| pmid = 19909295
| s2cid = 28194712
}}</ref>

== Treatment ==
''Acinetobacter'' species are innately resistant to many classes of antibiotics, including [[penicillin]], [[chloramphenicol]], and often [[aminoglycoside]]s. Resistance to [[fluoroquinolones]] has been reported during therapy, which has also resulted in increased resistance to other drug classes mediated through active drug [[efflux (microbiology)|efflux]]. A dramatic increase in [[antibiotic resistance]] in ''Acinetobacter'' strains has been reported by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC), and the carbapenems are recognised as the gold-standard and treatment of last resort.<ref name=Rahal_2006>{{cite journal | author = Rahal J | title = Novel antibiotic combinations against infections with almost completely resistant ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' and ''Acinetobacter'' species | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 43 | pages = S95–9 | year = 2006 | issue = Suppl 2 | pmid = 16894522 | doi = 10.1086/504486| doi-access = free }}</ref> ''Acinetobacter'' species are unusual in that they are sensitive to [[sulbactam]], which is commonly used to inhibit bacterial beta-lactamase, but this is an example of the antibacterial property of sulbactam itself.<ref name="Wood2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wood GC, Hanes SD, Croce MA, Fabian TC, Bougher BA | title=Comparison of ampicillin-sulbactam and imipenem-cilastatin for the treatment of ''Acinetobacter'' ventilator-associated pneumonia | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year=2002 | volume=34 | pages=1425–30  | doi=10.1086/340055 | pmid=12015687 | issue=11| doi-access=free }}</ref> Recently sulbactam-durlobactam, a new antibacterial combination undergoing phase 3 trial, has demonstrated good ''in vitro'' activity also against carbapenem-resistant ''A. baumannii'' isolates (92% susceptibility).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Segatore |first1=Bernardetta |last2=Piccirilli |first2=Alessandra |last3=Cherubini |first3=Sabrina |last4=Principe |first4=Luigi |last5=Alloggia |first5=Giovanni |last6=Mezzatesta |first6=Maria Lina |last7=Salmeri |first7=Mario |last8=Di Bella |first8=Stefano |last9=Migliavacca |first9=Roberta |last10=Piazza |first10=Aurora |last11=Meroni |first11=Elisa |last12=Fazii |first12=Paolo |last13=Visaggio |first13=Daniela |last14=Visca |first14=Paolo |last15=Cortazzo |first15=Venere |date=2022-08-22 |title=In Vitro Activity of Sulbactam–Durlobactam against Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Clinical Isolates: A Multicentre Report from Italy |journal=Antibiotics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1136 |doi=10.3390/antibiotics11081136 |pmid=36010006 |pmc=9404735 |issn=2079-6382|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In November 2004, the CDC reported an increasing number of ''A. baumannii'' bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the [[Iraq]]/[[Kuwait]] region during [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] were treated.<ref name=MMWR_2004>{{cite journal | title = ''Acinetobacter baumannii'' infections among patients at military medical facilities treating injured U.S. service members, 2002-2004 | journal = MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | volume = 53 | issue = 45 | pages = 1063–6 | year = 2004|pmid = 15549020 | author1 = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Most of these were multidrug-resistant. Among one set of isolates from [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]], 13 (35%) were susceptible to [[imipenem]] only, and two (4%) were resistant to all drugs tested. One antimicrobial agent, [[colistin]] (polymyxin E), has been used to treat infections with multidrug-resistant ''A. baumannii''; however, antimicrobial susceptibility testing for colistin was not performed on isolates described in this report. Because ''A. baumannii'' can survive on dry surfaces up to 20 days, they pose a high risk of spread and contamination in hospitals, potentially putting immunocompromised and other patients at risk for drug-resistant infections that are often fatal and, in general, expensive to treat. Trials to implement vaccines to prevent Acinetobacter infections were documented.<ref name="Ahmad2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmad TA, Tawfik DM, Sheweita SA, Haroun M, El-Sayed LH| title=Development of immunization trials against Acinetobacter baumannii| journal=Trials in Vaccinology| year=2016 | volume=5 | pages=53–60 | doi=10.1016/j.trivac.2016.03.001| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Tawfik2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tawfik DM, AhmadTA, Sheweita SA, Haroun M, El-Sayed LH| title=The detection of antigenic determinants of Acinetobacter baumannii| journal=Immunology Letters| year=2017 | volume=186 | pages=59–67 | doi=10.1016/j.imlet.2017.04.004| pmid=28427887|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165247817300901| url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Reports suggest this bacterium is susceptible to [[phage therapy]].<ref name="Matsuzaki2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Matsuzaki S, Rashel M, Uchiyama J |title=Bacteriophage therapy: a revitalized therapy against bacterial infectious diseases |journal=J. Infect. Chemother. |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=211–9 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16258815 |doi=10.1007/s10156-005-0408-9 |s2cid=8107934 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Gene-silencing antisense oligomers in a form called peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate [[morpholino]] oligomers have also been reported to inhibit growth in tests carried out in animals infected with antibiotic-resistant ''A. baumannii''.<ref name="Geller 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Geller BL, Marshall-Batty K, Schnell FJ |title=Gene-Silencing Antisense Oligomers Inhibit Acinetobacter Growth In Vitro and In Vivo. J. Infect. Diseases |date=October 2013|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="OSU News">{{cite web |url=http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2013/oct/beyond-antibiotics-%E2%80%9Cppmos%E2%80%9D-offer-new-approach-bacterial-infection |title=Beyond antibiotics: PPMOs offer new approach to bacterial infection |date=2013-10-15 |access-date=October 15, 2013 }}</ref>

[[Sulbactam/durlobactam]] (Xacduro) was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2023.<ref name="FDA PR 20230523">{{cite press release | title=FDA Approves New Treatment for Pneumonia Caused by Certain Difficult-to-Treat Bacteria | website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration | date=24 May 2023 | url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-treatment-pneumonia-caused-certain-difficult-treat-bacteria | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523231227/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-treatment-pneumonia-caused-certain-difficult-treat-bacteria | url-status=dead | archive-date=May 23, 2023 | access-date=24 May 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

==Aseptic technique==
The frequency of [[nosocomial infection]]s in British hospitals prompted the [[National Health Service]] to research the effectiveness of anions for air purification, finding that repeated airborne ''Acinetobacter'' infections in a ward were eliminated by the installation of a negative [[air ioniser]]—the infection rate fell to zero.<ref name="scientist">
{{cite magazine
|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3228-air-ionizers-wipe-out-hospital-infections.htm
|magazine=The New Scientist
|title=Air ionizers wipe out hospital infections
|access-date=2006-08-30}}</ref>

==Natural transformation==
Bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterium through the intervening liquid medium. Recipient bacteria must first enter a special physiological state termed [[Natural competence|competence]] to receive donor DNA. ''A.&nbsp;calcoaceticus'' is induced to become competent for natural transformation by dilution of a stationary culture into fresh nutrient medium.<ref name=Palmen>{{cite journal |vauthors=Palmen R, Vosman B, Buijsman P, Breek CK, Hellingwerf KJ |title=Physiological characterization of natural transformation in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus|journal=J. Gen. Microbiol. |volume=139 |issue=2 |pages=295–305 |date=February 1993 |pmid=8436948 |doi= 10.1099/00221287-139-2-295|doi-access=free }}</ref> Competence is gradually lost during prolonged exponential growth and for a period after entrance into the stationary state. The DNA taken up may be used to repair DNA damage or as a means to exchange genetic information by horizontal gene transfer.<ref name=Palmen /> Natural transformation in ''A. calcoaceticus'' may protect against exposure to DNA-damaging conditions in the natural environment of these bacteria, as appears to be the case for other bacterial species capable of transformation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM |title=Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens |journal=Infect. Genet. Evol. |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=267–85 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18295550 |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002 }}http://www.hummingbirds.arizona.edu/Faculty/Michod/Downloads/IGE%20review%20sex.pdf</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==

{{div col | small = yes | colwidth = 30em}}
* {{cite book |author1=K.J. Towner |author2=E. Bergogne-Bérézin |author3=C.A. Fewson | title = The Biology of Acinetobacter: Taxonomy, Clinical Importance, Molecular Biology, Physiology, Industrial Relevance (F.E.M.S. Symposium Series)| publisher = Springer | date = 30 June 1991 | isbn = 0306439026}}
* {{cite book | author = Dongyou Liu | title = Molecular Detection of Human Bacterial Pathogens | edition = 1 | publisher = Crc Pr Inc | date = 13 April 2011 | isbn = 978-1439812389}}
* {{cite book | author = Dongyou Liu | title = Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases: Microbiological Aspects and Risks | edition = 2 | publisher = Academic Press | date = 1 March 2013 | isbn = 978-0124158467}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Narciso-Da-Rocha | first1 = C. | last2 = Vaz-Moreira | first2 = I. | last3 = Svensson-Stadler | first3 = L. | last4 = Moore | first4 = E. R. B. | last5 = Manaia | first5 = C. L. M. | title = Diversity and antibiotic resistance of ''Acinetobacter'' spp. in water from the source to the tap |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225273045| doi = 10.1007/s00253-012-4190-1 | journal = Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology | volume = 97 | issue = 1 | pages = 329–340 | year = 2012 | pmid =  22669636| hdl = 10400.14/10027 | s2cid = 323861 | hdl-access = free }}
{{div col end}}

== External links ==
{{Wikispecies}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060917172146/http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/News/military.html Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090211034210/http://cmr.jcvi.org/tigr-scripts/CMR/GenomePage.cgi?org=ntas01 ''Acinetobacter'' sp. ADP1 Genome Page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140722055321/http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/cycsim/ CycSim: metabolic model of ''Acinetobacter baylyi adp1''] {{in lang|en}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q310457}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
[[Category:Healthcare-associated infections]]
[[Category:Moraxellaceae]]