Editing Adobe

{{Short description|Building material of earth and organic materials}}
{{About|the building material|the software company|Adobe Inc.|}}
{{Distinguish|Abode|Adobo}}
{{Redirect|Adobes|the place in Castile-La Mancha|Adobes, Spain|the place in the United States|Adobes, Texas}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
[[File:Adobe wall (detail) 1.jpg|thumb|Adobe wall (detail) in Bahillo, [[Palencia]], Spain]]
[[File:AdobeSurfaceCoatingRenewalOnWall.jpg|thumb|Renewal of the surface [[coating]] of an adobe wall in [[Chamisal, New Mexico]]]]
[[File:Qasroddasht.JPG|thumb|Adobe walls separate urban gardens in [[Shiraz]], Iran]]

'''Adobe''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|i|audio=En-us-adobe.ogg}} {{Respell|ə|DOH|bee}};<ref>{{OED|adobe, n.}}</ref> {{IPA|es|aˈðoβe|language}}) is a [[building material]] made from earth and organic materials. {{lang|es|Adobe}} is Spanish for [[mudbrick]]. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the [[Southwestern United States]], the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like [[Pueblo Revival architecture|Pueblo Revival]] or [[Territorial Revival architecture|Territorial Revival]]. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to [[cob (material)|cob]] and [[rammed earth]] buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world.

Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5,100 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mauricio|first1=Ana Cecilia|last2=Grieseler|first2=Rolf|last3=Heller|first3=Andrew R.|last4=Kelley|first4=Alice R.|last5=Rumiche|first5=Francisco|last6=Sandweiss|first6=Daniel H.|last7=Viveen|first7=Willem|date=2021-11-30|title=The earliest adobe monumental architecture in the Americas|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=118|issue=48|doi=10.1073/pnas.2102941118|issn=0027-8424|pmid=34782482|pmc=8640935 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11802941M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Description==
Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure.  There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured {{convert|8|×|4|×|12|in|cm|abbr=in|order=flip}} weighing about {{convert|25|lb|kg|-1|abbr=in|order=flip}}; in other contexts the size is {{convert|10|×|4|×|14|in|cm|abbr=in|order=flip}} weighing about {{convert|35|lb|kg|round=5|abbr=in|order=flip}}. The maximum sizes can reach up to {{convert|100|lb|kg|abbr=in|order=flip}}; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud ''[[in situ]]'', resulting in a different typology known as [[rammed earth]].

==Strength==
In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater [[thermal mass]], but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced.<ref>[http://www.livingatlaschile.com/?s=adobe Short documentary about adobe preparation and 2010 Chile earthquake] Livingatlaschile.com, FICh. Retrieved 5 March 2014 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624140043/http://www.livingatlaschile.com/?s=adobe |date=24 June 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Collyns |first=Dan |title=Peru rebuilds two years on from quake |publisher=BBC |date=15 August 2009 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm |access-date=24 August 2009 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090815100847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8201971.stm| archive-date= 15 August 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]], the [[2003 Bam earthquake]], and the [[2010 Chile earthquake]].

==Distribution==
Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, Southwestern North America, Southwestern and Eastern Europe.).<ref>Marchand, Trevor (2009). ''The Masons of Djenne''. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press</ref> Adobe had been in use by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in the Southwestern United States, [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes]] for several thousand years.<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | author2 = Linda Black |author3=Larry S. Krieger |author4=Phillip C. Naylor |author5=Dahia Ibo Shabaka | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, Ilinois | url =https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck| url-access = registration | isbn = 0-395-87274-X }}</ref> [[Puebloan peoples]] built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the [[Bronze Age#Periodization|Late Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]]s (eighth century BCE onwards).<ref>{{cite book|last= de Chazelles-Gazzal|first=Claire-Anne|title=Les maisons en terre de la Gaule méridionale|publisher=Éditions Monique Mergoil|year=1997|location=Montagnac, France|pages=49–57}}</ref> Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics.<ref>{{cite book|title=Natural hazards in El Salvador|last=Rose|first=William I.|author2=Julian J. Bommer|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=0-8137-2375-2|year=2004|page=299}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[File:San Pedro de Atacama church.jpg|thumb|left|Church at [[San Pedro de Atacama]], Chile]]
The word ''adobe'' {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|d|oʊ|b|iː}} has existed for around 4,000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]] ({{Circa|2000&nbsp;BC}}) word ''[[wikt:ḏbt#Egyptian|ḏbt]]'' "mud brick" (with vowels unwritten). Middle Egyptian evolved into [[Late Egyptian language|Late Egyptian]] and finally to Coptic ({{Circa|600&nbsp;BC}}), where it appeared as [[wikt:ⲧⲱⲃⲉ|ⲧⲱⲃⲉ]] ''tōbə''. This was adopted into Arabic as {{lang|ar|الطوب}} ''aṭ-ṭawbu'' or ''aṭ-ṭūbu'', with the [[Article (grammar)#Definite article|definite article]] ''al-'' attached<ref>"adobe", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Second Edition, on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press, 2009</ref> to the root ''tuba''.<ref>''Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries: English Words that Come from Spanish'', Houghton Mifflin Co., 2007, p.5</ref><ref>[http://www.earth-auroville.com/adobe_moulding_en.php "Adobe Moulding" Auroville Earth Institute]</ref> This was assimilated into the [[Old Spanish language]] as ''adobe'' {{IPA|osp|aˈdobe|}}, probably via [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]]. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to [[mudbrick]] construction.

In more modern English usage, the term ''adobe'' has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in [[New Mexico]], regardless of the construction method.

==Composition==
[[File:Santa Fe adobe.jpg|thumb|Adobe style in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]]]
An adobe brick is a [[composite material]] made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as [[straw]] or [[Dung (matter)|dung]]. The [[soil]] composition typically contains [[sand]], [[silt]] and [[clay]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vargas|first=J.|author2=J. Bariola|author3= M. Blondet|title=Seismic Strength of Adobe Masonry|journal=Materials and Structures|year=1986|volume=9|issue=4|pages=253–256|doi=10.1007/BF02472107|s2cid=108826268}}</ref> Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand.<ref>{{cite web|last=Garrison|first=James|title=Adobe-The Material, Its Deterioration, Its Coatings|url=http://missions.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/1%20Garrison-Adobe%20Characteristics.pdf|access-date=27 February 2013|pages=5–16|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305165712/http://missions.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/1%20Garrison-Adobe%20Characteristics.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles {{convert|2|to|10|in|mm|order=flip|-1|abbr=on}}, with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight.

No more than half the clay content should be [[expansive clay]]s, with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition.<ref>{{cite web|last=Austin |first=George |url=http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p69.pdf |work=New Mexico Geology, November 1984 |publisher=New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources |title=Adobe as a building material |url-status=dead |access-date=27 February 2013 |page=70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232337/http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/downloads/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p69.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}</ref>

==Material properties==
[[File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], [[Mali]], built in adobe. The struts projecting from the wall serve as decoration, as well as supports for scaffolding during maintenance.]]
[[File:Niger, Agadez (50), house repairs, old town.jpg|thumb|Maintenance of historic architecture in [[Agadez]], [[Niger]], by adding a new layer of mud rendering]]
Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quentinwilson.squarespace.com/storage/adobecode.pdf |title=14.7.4 NMAC |access-date=25 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818200926/http://quentinwilson.squarespace.com/storage/adobecode.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2013 }}</ref> call for a minimum compressive strength of {{cvt|300|lbf/in2|N/mm2|order=flip}} for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a {{convert|1|g}} lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least {{cvt|300|lbf/in2|N/mm2|order=flip}} for the finished block.

In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ([[radiation]]) and from the surrounding air ([[convection]]) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material.

Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual – preferably with changing thermal jumps.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Aimilios|last1=Michael|first2=Maria|last2=Philokyprou|first3=Stavroula|last3=Thravalou|first4=Ioannis
|last4=Ioannou|year=2016|title=The role of adobes in the thermal performance of vernacular dwellings|url=https://craterre.hypotheses.org/files/2018/07/TERRA-2016_Th-4_Art-071_Michael_corr.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://craterre.hypotheses.org/files/2018/07/TERRA-2016_Th-4_Art-071_Michael_corr.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Terra Lyon 2016}}</ref> There is an effective [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a north facing {{convert|10|in|cm|adj=on}} wall of R0=10 hr ft<sup>2</sup> °F/Btu,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/QandA/adobe/mass.htm|title=Mass and insulation with adobe|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref> which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1&nbsp;ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chávez-Galán|first1=Jesus|last2=Almanza|first2=Rafael|last3=Rodríguez|first3=Neftali|title=Proceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 (Vol. I – Vol. V) |chapter=Experimental Measurments [sic] of Thermal Properties for Mexican Building Materials to Simulate Thermal Behavior to Save Energy |publisher=Springer|year=2008|isbn=978-3-540-75996-6|pages=496–501|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-75997-3_89}}</ref> To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R<sub>0</sub> by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a {{convert|10|in|cm|adj=on}} wall R<sub>0</sub>=4.1 hr ft<sup>2</sup> °F/Btu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=2009 New Mexico Energy Conservation Code Residential Applications Manual, v2.0|last=Hagan|first=Dan|publisher=State of New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Department Energy Conservation and Management Division (ECMD)|date=January 2011|pages=9}}</ref> Another source provides the following properties: conductivity 0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity 0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density {{cvt|106|lb/cuft|kg/m3}},<ref>{{cite web|title=HVAC Systems AE-390|url=http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~act27/AE390/A5/index_files/Page536.htm|publisher=Drexel University|access-date=25 November 2014}}</ref> giving heat capacity 25.4 Btu/(ft<sup>3</sup> °F) or 1700 kJ/(m<sup>3</sup> K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be {{cvt|0.013|sqft/h|m2/s}}.

==Uses==
===Poured and puddled adobe walls===
[[File:Cueva de las Jarillas.jpg|thumb|left|Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at [[Cuarenta Casas]] in Mexico]]
Poured and [[Puddling (engineering)|puddled]] adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state.<ref>"puddle, n. 4.". ''Oxford English Dictionary'' 2nd. ed. 2009. CD-rom.</ref> These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.<ref name="Keefe">Keefe, Laurence (2005). ''Earth Building: Methods and Materials, Repair and Conservation''. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 22. {{ISBN|0-415-32322-3}}.</ref>

===Adobe bricks===
[[File:Milyanfan-adobe-bricks-8038.jpg|thumb|Adobe bricks near a construction site in [[Milyanfan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]]]]
Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about {{convert|25|by|36|cm|0|abbr=on}} in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking.

The same mixture, without straw, is used to make [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and often [[plaster]] on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used [[Lime (material)|lime]]-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, [[rebar]], or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick.<ref>{{cite web|author=Technical Information Online |url=https://infohub.practicalaction.org/bitstream/handle/11283/314561/5110df27-5b44-4243-920e-37c50a310b36.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://infohub.practicalaction.org/bitstream/handle/11283/314561/5110df27-5b44-4243-920e-37c50a310b36.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Mud Plasters and Renders |publisher=Practicalaction.org |access-date=9 November 2010}}</ref> A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The [[Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service]] at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than {{frac|1|3}} clay, not less than {{frac|1|2}} sand, and never more than {{frac|1|3}} silt.<ref name="NMSU">{{cite web |last1=Dominguez |first1=Thomas |title=ABCs of Making Adobe Bricks |url=https://pubs.nmsu.edu/_g/G521/index.html |publisher=New Mexico State University |access-date=26 October 2022}}</ref>

During the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]], designer and builder [[Hugh W. Comstock]] used cheaper materials and made a specialized adobe brick called "Bitudobe." His first adobe house was built in 1936. In 1948, he published the book ''Post-Adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining A Rugged Timber Frame And Modern Stabilized Adobe,'' which described his method of construction, including how to make "Bitudobe." In 1938, he served as an adviser to the architects [[Ernest J. Kump|Franklin & Kump]] Associates, who built the [[Carmel High School (Carmel, California)|Carmel High School]], which used his Post-adobe system.<ref name="Seavey">{{cite book|last=Seavey |first=Kent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vsfoKsxi4q4C&q=Comstock|title=Carmel, A History in Architecture|publisher=Arcadia Publishing |location=Charleston, South Carolina|date=2007|page=114|isbn=978-0-7385-4705-3|access-date=2022-01-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58880807 |title=Post-adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining a Rugged Timber Frame and Modern Stabilized Adobe|last= Comstock |first= Hugh W.|date= 1948|oclc=58880807 |access-date=2022-02-27}}</ref>

===Adobe wall construction===
[[File:Fort Saint-Sébastien - Visite des fouilles juin 2012 68.jpg|thumb|The [[earthen plaster]] removed, exposing the adobe bricks at Fort St. Sebastien in France]]
The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly {{convert|24|and|14|in|cm|round=5|abbr=in|order=flip}} thick, respectively.  Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a [[lintel]] is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters.

===Adobe roof===
The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe.

Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking.

The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called [[Viga (architecture)|vigas]], lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dl-building.com/preservation-historic-adobe-buildings/ |title=Preservation of Historic Adobe Buildings |publisher=Dawson Lupul |access-date=30 January 2014 |archive-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701055819/http://dl-building.com/preservation-historic-adobe-buildings/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied.

To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least {{convert|1|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/materials/adobe-construction2.htm|title=How Adobe Construction Works|date=2012-04-17|work=Add Water, Then Stir – How Adobe Construction Works |access-date=2017-10-24|language=en}}</ref>

Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. {{convert|3|in|cm|0|spell=In}} of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then {{convert|18|in|cm|round=5}} of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}

Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls.

In 1927, the [[Uniform Building Code]] (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By the 1980s however, seismic related changes in the California Building Code effectively ended solid wall adobe construction in California; however Post-and-Beam adobe and veneers are still being used.

==Adobe around the world==
The largest structure ever made from adobe is the [[Arg-é Bam]] built by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks and the ''ciudellas'' of [[Chan Chan]] and [[Tambo Colorado]], both in Peru.
{{wide image|Ancient Bam, 2002.png|1000px|align-cap=center|The [[citadel]] of [[Bam, Iran]], or [[Arg-é Bam]], in [[Kerman province]], [[Iran]]: the world's largest adobe structure, dating to at least 500&nbsp;BC}}

<gallery widths="160px" heights="160px" perrow="4">
File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, [[Romania]]'s [[Danube Delta]]
File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG|Mixing mud and straw in brick frames
File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG|Community effort
File:Milyanfan-adobe-brick-house-8039.jpg|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Kyrgyzstan]]
File:Sa'dah 02.jpg|House in [[Sa'dah]], Yemen
File:AdobeHouseVrancea.JPG|Adobe brick house under construction in [[Romania]]
File:Мазанка у ІКК Запорозька Січ.jpg|Ukrainian [[Cossack]] hut
File:5640-Linxia-City-Dongguan-back-street.jpg|An adobe wall in [[Linxia City]], Gansu, China
File:Poeh museum, night.jpg|[[Poeh Museum]] tower, the tallest adobe structure in [[New Mexico]], US
File:16 21 2688 san miguel.jpg|[[San Miguel Mission]] in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]
File:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], famous building made from [[Mudbrick#Banco|banco]], a type of adobe
File:Taos NM.jpg|[[Taos Pueblo]] showing adobe-ovens
</gallery>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Alker}}
* {{annotated link|Cas di torto}}
* {{annotated link|Cob (building)}}
* {{annotated link|Compressed earth block}}
* {{annotated link|Earth structure}}
* {{annotated link|Hassan Fathy}}
* {{annotated link|Mission San Xavier del Bac}}
* {{annotated link|Monterey Colonial architecture}} used adobe walls
* {{annotated link|Mudbrick}}
* {{annotated link|Qadad}} (waterproofing plaster)
* {{annotated link|Qalat (fortress)}}
* {{annotated link|Rammed earth}}
* {{annotated link|Sod house}}
* {{annotated link|Superadobe}}
* {{annotated link|Taq Kasra}} (also known as Ctesiphon Arch) in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world, built beginning in 540 AD
* {{annotated link|Wattle and daub}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary|adobe}}

{{Prehistoric technology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Soil-based building materials]]
[[Category:Masonry]]
[[Category:Adobe buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology]]
[[Category:Vernacular architecture]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]