Editing Affricate

{{Short description|Consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative}}
{{full citations needed|date=September 2023}}
{{IPA affricates|audio=yes|class=floatright}}
{{IPA notice}}
An '''affricate''' is a [[consonant]] that begins as a [[stop consonant|stop]] and releases as a [[fricative consonant|fricative]], generally with the same [[place of articulation]] (most often [[coronal consonant|coronal]]). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single [[phoneme]] or a consonant pair.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Peter |last=Roach |author-link=Peter Roach (phonetician) |url=http://www.cambridge.org/servlet/file/EPP_PED_Glossary.pdf?ITEM_ENT_ID=2491706&ITEM_VERSION=1&COLLSPEC_ENT_ID=7 |title=English Phonetics and Phonology Glassary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412004402/http://www.cambridge.org/servlet/file/EPP_PED_Glossary.pdf?ITEM_ENT_ID=2491706&ITEM_VERSION=1&COLLSPEC_ENT_ID=7 |archive-date=April 12, 2015 |year=2009}}</ref> English has two affricate phonemes, {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}, often spelled ''ch'' and ''j'', respectively.

==Examples==
The [[English language|English]] sounds spelled "ch" and "j" ([[Phonetic transcription#Narrow versus broad; phonemic versus phonetic|broadly transcribed]] as {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), [[German language|German]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] ''z'' {{IPA|[t͡s]}} and [[Italian language|Italian]] ''z'' {{IPA|[d͡z]}} are typical affricates, and sounds like these are fairly common in the world's languages, as are other affricates with similar sounds, such as those in [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. However, voiced affricates other than {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} are relatively uncommon. For several places of articulation they are not attested at all.

Much less common are [[labiodental consonant|labiodental]] affricates, such as {{IPA|[p͡f]}} in [[German language|German]], [[Kinyarwanda]] and [[Izi language|Izi]], or [[velar consonant|velar]] affricates, such as {{IPA|[k͡x]}} in [[Tswana language|Tswana]] (written ''kg'') or in High Alemannic [[Swiss German]] dialects. Worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding [[stop consonant]]s, {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[k]}}, are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the fricative release is [[lateral consonant|lateral]], such as the {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}} sound found in [[Nahuatl]] and [[Navajo language|Navajo]]. Some other [[Athabaskan languages]], such as [[Dene Suline language|Dene Suline]], have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral: {{IPA|[t̪͡θ]}}, {{IPA|[t̪͡θʰ]}}, {{IPA|[t̪͡θʼ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡s]}}, {{IPA|[t͡sʰ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡sʼ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃʰ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃʼ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɬʰ]}}, and {{IPA|[t͡ɬʼ]}}.

==Notation==
Affricates are transcribed in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] by a combination of two letters, one for the stop element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, a [[Tie (typography)|tie bar]] is generally used. The tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because it is more legible.<ref>For example, in {{Cite journal |last1=Niesler |first1=Thomas |last2=Louw |first2=Philippa |last3=Roux |first3=Justus |date=November 2005 |title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/16073610509486401 |journal=Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=459–474 |doi=10.2989/16073610509486401 |s2cid=7138676 |issn=1607-3614|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thus:
:{{angbr IPA|p͡f b͡v, p͡ɸ b͡β, t͡s d͡z, t͡ɬ d͡ɮ, t͡ʃ d͡ʒ, t͡ᶘ d͡ᶚ, t͡ɕ d͡ʑ, ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ{{hair space}}, k͡x ɡ͡ɣ, q͡χ ɢ͡ʁ}}
or
:{{angbr IPA|p͜f b͜v, p͜ɸ b͜β, t͜s d͜z, t͜ɬ d͜ɮ, t͜ʃ d͜ʒ, t͜ɕ d͜ʑ, ʈ͜ʂ ɖ͜ʐ{{hair space}}, k͜x ɡ͜χ, q͜χ ɢ͜ʁ}}.

A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript:
:{{angbr IPA|pᶠ bᵛ, pᶲ bᵝ, tˢ dᶻ, t𐞛 d𐞞, tᶴ dᶾ, t𝿣 d𝿧[pending in Unicode 17], tᶝ dᶽ, tᶳ dᶼ, kˣ ɡˠ, qᵡ ɢʶ}}
This is derived from the IPA convention of indicating other releases with a superscript. However, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate.

Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in [[Unicode]] for the sibilant affricates, which remain in common use:
:{{angbr IPA|[[wikt:ʦ|ʦ]] [[wikt:ʣ|ʣ]], [[wikt:ʧ|ʧ]] [[wikt:ʤ|ʤ]], [[wikt:𝼜|𝼜]] [[wikt:𝼙|𝼙]], [[wikt:ʨ|ʨ]] [[wikt:ʥ|ʥ]], [[wikt:ꭧ|ꭧ]] [[wikt:ꭦ|ꭦ]] }}.{{NoteTag|[[John Laver]] created the para-IPA letters {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ᶘ ᶚ}} for the not-quite retroflex fricatives of Polish ''sz'' and ''ż''; the affricates {{angbr IPA|𝼜 𝼙}} are Polish ''cz'' and ''dż''.}}

Approved for Unicode 18 in 2026, per request from the IPA, are the remaining coronal affricates:<ref>[https://www.unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html Unicode pipeline]: [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24051-affricate-ligatures.pdf L2/24-051]</ref>
:{{angbr IPA|[[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF24.svg|&#x1DF24;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF24;]][[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF1F.svg|&#x1DF1F;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF1F;]], [[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF22.svg|&#x1DF22;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF22;]][[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF20.svg|&#x1DF20;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF20;]], [[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF23.svg|&#x1DF23;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF23;]][[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF21.svg|&#x1DF21;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF21;]], [[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF2C.svg|&#x1DF2C;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF2C;]][[file:IPA Unicode 1xDF2B.svg|&#x1DF2B;|20px|link=wikt:&#x1DF2B;]]}} for {{IPA|[t͜θ] [d͜ð], [t͜ɬ] [d͡ɮ], [t͡ꞎ] [d͡𝼅], [t͜ʆ] [d͡ʓ]}}.

Ligatures {{angbr IPA|[[file:p-f affricate ligature.svg|20px]][[file:b-v affricate ligature.svg|20px]], [[file:p-phi affricate ligature.svg|20px]][[file:b-beta affricate ligature.svg|20px]], [[file:c-ç affricate ligature.svg|20px]][[file:turned f - j tail affricate ligature.svg|20px]], [[file:k-x affricate ligature.svg|20px]][[file:g-gamma affricate ligature.svg|20px]]/[[file:g-gamma affricate ligature (alt).svg|20px]], [[file:q-chi affricate ligature.svg|20px]][[file:G-R affricate ligature.svg|20px]]}} for the non-coronal affricates {{IPA|[pɸ] [bβ], [pf] [bv], [cç] [ɟʝ], [kx] [ɡɣ]/[gɣ], [qχ] [ɢʁ]}} are recognized in China.<ref>[http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/ziliao/A19/200602/W020220517310669055657.pdf The Universal Phonetic Symbol Set in China [中国通用音标符号集]. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, Language and Writing Standards no. GF 3007-2006.</ref>

Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a plosive plus a fricative, which is contrastive in languages such as Polish. However, in languages where there is no such distinction within a syllable, such as English or Turkish, a simple sequence of letters such as {{angbr IPA|tʃ}} is commonly used, with no overt indication that they form an affricate. in such cases the syllable boundary may be written to distinguish the plosive-fricative sequence in ''petshop'' {{IPA|/ˈpɛt.ʃɒp/}} from the similar affricate in ''ketchup'' {{IPA|/ˈkɛtʃʌp/}}.

In other phonetic transcription systems, such as the [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist]] system, affricates may be transcribed with single letters. The affricate {{IPA|[t͜s]}} may be transcribed as {{angbr|c}} or {{angbr|¢}}; {{IPA|[d͜z]}} as {{angbr|j}}, {{angbr|ƶ}} or (older) {{angbr|ʒ}}; {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} as {{angbr|c}} or {{angbr|č}}; {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} as {{angbr|ǰ}}, {{angbr|ǧ}} or (older) {{angbr|ǯ}}; {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} as {{angbr|ƛ}}; and {{IPA|[d͡ɮ]}} as {{angbr|λ}}.

This also happens with phonemic transcription in IPA: {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}} are sometimes transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}}, for example in the IPA ''Handbook''.

==Affricates vs. stop–fricative sequences==
In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences:
*[[Polish language|Polish]] affricate {{IPA|/t͡ʂ/}} in ''czysta'' 'clean [[grammatical gender#Masculine, feminine, and neuter|(f.)]]' versus stop–fricative {{IPA|/tʂ/}} in ''trzysta'' 'three hundred'.<ref>{{citation|last=Gussmann|first=Edmund|year=2007|title=The Phonology of Polish|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=7|isbn=978-0-19-926747-7}}</ref>
*[[Klallam language|Klallam]] affricate {{IPA|/t͡s/}} in ''k'ʷə́nc'' 'look at me' versus stop–fricative {{IPA|/ts/}} in ''k'ʷə́nts'' 'he looks at it'.

The exact phonetic difference varies between languages. In stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts; but in affricates, the fricative element ''is'' the release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have a [[syllable]] boundary between the two segments, but not necessarily.

In English, {{IPA|/ts/}} and {{IPA|/dz/}} (''nuts'', ''nods'') are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences.  They often <!-- some exceptions are tsetse, chintz, waltz, adz, etc. --> contain a [[morpheme]] boundary (for example, ''nuts'' = ''nut'' + ''s''). The English affricate phonemes {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} do not contain morpheme boundaries.

The phonemic distinction in English between the affricate {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and the stop–fricative sequence {{IPA|/t.ʃ/}} (found across syllable boundaries) can be observed by minimal pairs such as the following:

*''worst shin'' {{IPA|/wɜː(ɹ)st.ʃɪn/}} → {{IPA|[wɜː(ɹ)sʔʃɪn]}}
*''worse chin'' {{IPA|/wɜː(ɹ)s.t͡ʃɪn/}} → {{IPA|[wɜː(ɹ)st͡ʃɪn]}}

In some accents of English, the {{IPA|/t/}} in 'worst shin' [[debuccalization|debuccalizes]] to a [[glottal stop]] before {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

Stop–fricatives can be distinguished [[acoustic phonetics|acoustic]]ally from affricates by the [[rise time]] of the frication noise, which is shorter for affricates.{{sfnp|Howell|Rosen|1983}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2003}}{{sfnp|Mitani|Kitama|Sato|2006}}

==Geminate affricates==
When affriates are [[geminate]]d, it is the duration of the plosive closure that is lengthened, not that of the frication. For example, {{IPA|/t͜sː/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[tːs]}}, not *{{IPA|[tsː]}}.<ref>{{SOWL|92}}</ref><ref>Joshua Wilbur (2014) ''A Grammar of Pite Saami'', p 47</ref>

==List of affricates==
In the case of coronals, the symbols {{angbr IPA|t, d}} are normally used for the stop portion of the affricate regardless of place. For example, {{angbr IPA|t͡ʂ}} is commonly seen for {{angbr IPA|ʈ͡ʂ}}, {{angbr IPA|t͡ʃ}} for {{angbr IPA|t̠͡ʃ}} and {{angbr IPA|t͡θ}} for {{angbr IPA|t̪͡θ}}.

The exemplar languages are ones that have been reported to have these sounds, but in several cases, they may need confirmation.

===Sibilant affricates===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Voiceless !! Languages !! Voiced !! Languages
|-
| [[Voiceless alveolar affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|t͡s|size=200px|hidecc=y|Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate.oga}}</div> || [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ''c''<br>[[Georgian language|Georgian]] ც<br>[[German language|German]] ''z'', ''tz''<br>[[Japanese language|Japanese]] つ/ツ {{IPA|[tsu͍]}}<br>[[Kʼicheʼ language|Kʼicheʼ]]<br>[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] ''z'' ([[pinyin]])<br>[[Italian language|Italian]] ''z''<br>[[Pashto language|Pashto]] {{lang|ps|څ}}
| [[Voiced alveolar affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|d͡z|size=180px|hidecc=y|Voiced alveolar sibilant affricate.oga}}</div>|| Albanian ''x''<br>Georgian ძ<br>Japanese ([[Yotsugana|some dialects]])<br>Italian ''z''<br>Pashto {{lang|ps|ځ}}
|-
| [[Voiceless dental affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|t̪͡s̪|size=200px|hidecc=y}}</div> || [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''c''<br>[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ц<br>[[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] ''c''/ц<br>[[Polish language|Polish]] ''c''
| [[Voiced dental affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|d̪͡z̪|size=180px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Hungarian ''dz''<br>Macedonian [[Dze|ѕ]]<br>[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] дз<br>Polish ''dz''
|-
| [[Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|t̠͡ɕ|size=200px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Japanese ち/チ {{IPA|[tɕi]}}<br>Mandarin ''j'' ([[pinyin]])<br>Polish ''ć'', ''ci''<br>Serbo-Croatian ''ć''/ћ<br>[[Thai language|Thai]] จ<br>Vietnamese ch
| [[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|d̠͡ʑ |size=180px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Japanese じ/ジ, ぢ/ヂ {{IPA|[dʑi]}}<br>Polish ''dź'', ''dzi''<br>Serbo-Croatian ''đ''/ђ<br>[[Korean language|Korean]] ㅈ
|-
| [[Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|t̠͡ʃ|size=200px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Albanian ''ç''<br>[[English language|English]] ''ch'', ''tch''<br>Georgian ჩ<br>German ''tsch''<br>Hungarian ''cs''<br>Italian ''ci'', ''ce''<br>Maltese ''ċ''<br>[[Persian language|Persian]] {{lang|fa|چ}}<br>Romanian ''ci'', ''ce''<br>[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''ch''<br>Turkish ''ç''<br>
| [[Voiced palato-alveolar affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|d̠͡ʒ|size=180px|hidecc=y}}</div> ||Albanian ''xh''<br>[[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|ج}}<br>Czech ''dž''<br>English ''j'', ''g''<br>Georgian ჯ<br>Hungarian ''dzs''<br>Indonesian ''j''<br>Italian ''gi'', ''ge''<br>Maltese ''ġ''<br>Romanian ''gi'', ''ge''<br>Turkish ''c''
|-
| [[Voiceless retroflex affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|ʈ͡ʂ|size=200px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Mandarin ''zh'' ([[pinyin]])<br>Polish ''cz''<br>Serbo-Croatian ''č''/ч<br>[[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''č''<br>[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ''tr''
| [[Voiced retroflex affricate]] <div style="width:50px;">{{IPA soundbox|ɖ͡ʐ|size=180px|hidecc=y}}</div> || Polish ''dż''<br>Serbo-Croatian ''dž''/џ<br>Slovak ''dž''
|}
The [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] [[Abkhaz phonology|Abkhaz]] and [[Ubykh phonology|Ubykh]] both contrast sibilant affricates at four places of articulation: alveolar, postalveolar, alveolo-palatal and retroflex. They also distinguish voiceless, voiced, and [[ejective]] affricates at each of these.

When a language has only one type of affricate, it is usually a sibilant; this is the case in e.g. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ({{IPA|[d̠ʒ]}}), most dialects of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ({{IPA|[t̠ʃ]}}), and [[Thai language|Thai]] ({{IPA|[tɕ]}}).

===Non-sibilant affricates===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sound (voiceless) !! IPA !! Languages !! Sound (voiced) !! IPA !! Languages
|-
| [[Voiceless bilabial affricate]] || {{IPA|[pɸ]}} || Present allophonically in [[Kaingang language|Kaingang]] and [[Taos phonology|Taos]]. Not reported as a phoneme in any natural language. || [[Voiced bilabial affricate]] || {{IPA|[bβ]}} ||Allophonic in [[Banjun language|Banjun]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phoible.org/inventories/view/1384|title=Phoible 2.0 -|access-date=2020-12-27|archive-date=2021-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204231345/https://phoible.org/inventories/view/1384|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Shipibo language#Phonology|Shipibo]]{{sfnp|Valenzuela|Márquez Pinedo|Maddieson|2001|p=}}
|-
| [[Voiceless labiodental affricate|Voiceless bilabial-labiodental affricate]] || {{IPA|[pf]}} || [[German language|German]], [[Teke language|Teke]] || [[Voiced labiodental affricate|Voiced bilabial-labiodental affricate]] || {{IPA|[bv]}} || [[Teke language|Teke]]{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}
|-
| [[Voiceless labiodental affricate]] || {{IPA|[p̪f]}} || XiNkuna [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]]
| [[Voiced labiodental affricate]] || {{IPA|[b̪v]}} || XiNkuna Tsonga
|-
| [[Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate]] || {{IPA|[t̪θ]}} || [[New York City English|New York English]], [[Luo dialect|Luo]], [[Dene Suline language|Dene Suline]], [[Cun language|Cun]], some varieties of [[Venetian language|Venetian]] and other North Italian dialects
| [[Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate]] || {{IPA|[d̪ð]}} || [[New York City English|New York]],<ref>{{Citation
 |last         = Labov
 |first        = William
 |year         = 1966
 |title        = The Social Stratification of English in New York City
 |edition      = 2nd
 |publisher    = Cambridge University Press
 |place        = Cambridge
 |url          = http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~bakovic/variation/Labov-2006.pdf
 |access-date  = 2014-06-27
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20140824011939/http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~bakovic/variation/Labov-2006.pdf
 |archive-date = 2014-08-24
 |url-status     = dead
 |pages=36–37
}}</ref> [[Hiberno-English|Dublin]],{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=302}} and [[New Zealand English|Maori English]],<ref>{{citation
|last1=Warren
|first1=Paul
|last2=Bauer
|first2=Laurie
|year=2004
|chapter=Maori English: phonology
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=614–624
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}</ref> Dene Suline
|-
| [[Voiceless retroflex non-sibilant affricate]] || {{IPA|[tɻ̝̊]}} || [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] {{citation needed|date=October 2008}}, [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
| [[Voiced retroflex non-sibilant affricate]] || {{IPA|[dɻ̝]}} || [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
|-
| [[Voiceless palatal affricate]] || {{IPA|[cç]}} || [[Skolt Sami language|Skolt Sami]] (younger speakers), [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (casual speech), [[Albanian language|Albanian]] (transcribed as [c]), allophonically in Kaingang
| [[Voiced palatal affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɟʝ]}} || Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech), [[Albanian language|Albanian]] (transcribed as [ɟ]), some [[Spanish language|Spanish]] dialects. Not reported to contrast with a [[voiced palatal plosive]] {{IPA|[ɟ]}}
|-
| [[Voiceless velar affricate]] || {{IPA|[kx]}} || [[Tswana language|Tswana]],{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} [[High Alemannic German]] || [[Voiced velar affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɡɣ]}} || rowspan=1 | Allophonic in some [[English English]]<ref>{{citation
|last=Gimson
|first=Alfred Charles
|editor-last=Cruttenden
|editor-first=Alan
|year=2014
|title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English
|publisher=Routledge
|edition=8th
|isbn=9781444183092
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ
|page=172
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last=Wells
|first=John C.
|author-link=John C. Wells
|year=1982
|title=Accents of English 2: The British Isles
|place=Cambridge
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-24224-X
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3-ElL71fikC
|pages=322–323, 372
}}</ref>
|-
| [[Voiceless uvular affricate]] || {{IPA|[qχ]}} || [[Nez Percé language|Nez Percé]], [[Wolof language|Wolof]], [[Bats language|Bats]], [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Avar language|Avar]], [[Tsez language|Tsez]]. Not reported to contrast with a [[voiceless uvular plosive]] {{IPA|[q]}} in natural languages. || [[Voiced uvular affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɢʁ]}} || Reported from the [[Raivavae]] dialect of [[Austral language|Austral]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Raoul|last=Zamponi|title=Multiple sources of glottal stop in Raʔivavaean|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=35|issue=1|pages=6–20|year=1996|doi=10.2307/3623028|jstor=3623028}}</ref> and [[Ekagi language|Ekagi]] with a velar lateral allophone {{IPA|[ɡʟ]}} before front vowels.
|-
| [[Voiceless pharyngeal affricate]] || {{IPA|[ʡħ]}} || [[Haida language|Haida]]. Not reported to contrast with an [[epiglottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʡ]}} || [[Voiced pharyngeal affricate]] || {{IPA|[ʡʕ]}} || [[Somali language|Somali]]. Pronounced {{IPA|[ʡʕ]}} or sometimes with weak epiglottal trilling {{IPA|[ʡʢ]}} initially, otherwise realized as {{IPA|[ʡ]}}<ref>{{cite report |last1=Edmondson |first1=Jerold A. |last2=Esling |first2=John H. |last3=Harris |first3=Jimmy G. |title=Supraglottal cavity shape, linguistic register, and other phonetic features of Somali |url=http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/somali.pdf |access-date=2020-11-21 |archive-date=2012-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315001803/http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/somali.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Voiceless glottal affricate]] || {{IPA|[ʔh]}} || [[Southwestern Mandarin|Yuxi dialect]], allophonic in [[Received Pronunciation]]{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=148}} || Voiced glottal affricate || {{IPA|[ʔɦ]}}
|| Not attested in any natural language
|}

===Lateral affricates===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sound (voiceless) !! IPA !! Languages !! Sound (voiced) !! IPA !! Languages
|-
| [[Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[tɬ]}} || [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]], [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], etc.
| [[Voiced alveolar lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[dɮ]}} || [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]], [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]]. Not reported to ever contrast with a [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative]] {{IPA|[ɮ]}}.
|-
| [[Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[ʈꞎ]}} || [[Bhadrawahi language|Bhadrawahi]], apical post-alveolar. Realization of phonemic {{IPA|/ʈl/}} in [[Kamkata-vari language|Kamkata-vari]] and [[Kamviri dialect|Kamvari]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Strand, Richard F. |year=2010 |title=Nurestâni Languages |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nurestani-languages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106105936/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nurestani-languages |archive-date=2016-11-06 |access-date=2015-06-20 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition}}</ref>
| [[Voiced retroflex lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɖ𝼅]}} || [[Bhadrawahi language|Bhadrawahi]], apical post-alveolar. Realization of phonemic {{IPA|/ɖl/}} in Kamkata-vari and Kamviri.
|-
| [[Voiceless palatal lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[c𝼆]}} || as ejective {{IPA|[c𝼆ʼ]}} in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]]; in free variation with {{IPA|[t𝼆]}} in [[Hadza language|Hadza]].
| [[Voiced palatal lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɟʎ̝]}} || Allophonic in [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]].
|-
| [[Voiceless velar lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[k𝼄]}} || as a prevelar in [[Archi language|Archi]] and as an ejective {{IPA|[k𝼄ʼ]}} in [[Zulu language|Zulu]],{{citation needed|date=December 2009}} also exist in the [[Laghuu language]].
| [[Voiced velar lateral affricate]] || {{IPA|[ɡʟ̝]}} || [[Laghuu language|Laghuu]].
|}

===Trilled affricates===
{{main|Trilled affricate}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sound (voiceless) !! IPA !! Languages !! Sound (voiced) !! IPA !! Languages
|-
| Voiceless [[Voiceless bilabial trill|trilled bilabial]] affricate || {{IPA|[pʙ̥]}} || Not attested in any natural language. || Voiced [[Voiced bilabial trill|trilled bilabial]] affricate || {{IPA|[bʙ]}} || [[Kele language (New Guinea)|Kele]] and [[Malekula Central languages|Avava]]. Reported only in an allophone of [mb] before [o] or [u].
|-
| Voiceless [[Voiceless alveolar trill|trilled alveolar]] affricate || {{IPA|[tr̥]}} || [[Ngkoth language|Ngkoth]].
| Voiced [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills|trilled alveolar]] affricate || {{IPA|[dr]}} || [[Nias language|Nias]]. [[Fijian language|Fijian]] and [[Malekula Central languages|Avava]] also have this sound after [n].
|-
| Voiceless epiglottal affricate || {{IPA|[ʡʜ]}} || Hydaburg [[Haida language|Haida]]. || Voiced epiglottal affricate || {{IPA|[ʡʢ]}} ||  Hydaburg [[Haida language|Haida]]. Cognate to Southern Haida {{IPA|[ɢ]}}, Masset Haida {{IPA|[ʕ]}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bessell |first=Nicola J. |title=Preliminary Notes on Some Pacific Northwest Coast Pharyngeals |url=http://lingserver.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/sites/default/files/1993_Bessell.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185927/http://lingserver.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/sites/default/files/1993_Bessell.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2015-06-05 |publisher=Institute for Research in Cognitive Science, University of Pennsylvania}}</ref>

|}

[[Pirahã language|Pirahã]] and [[Wari' language|Wari']] have a [[Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop|dental stop with bilabial trilled release]] {{IPA|[t̪ʙ̥]}}.

===Heterorganic affricates===
Although most affricates are [[homorganic]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]] and [[Chiricahua language|Chiricahua Apache]] have a heterorganic alveolar-velar affricate {{IPA|[tx]}}.{{sfnp|Hoijer|Opler|1938}}{{sfnp|Young|Morgan|1987}}{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996}}{{sfnp|McDonough|2003}}{{sfnp|McDonough|Wood|2008}}{{sfnp|Iskarous|McDonough|Whalen|2012}} [[Wari' language|Wari']] and [[Pirahã language|Pirahã]] have a voiceless dental bilabially trilled affricate [t̪ʙ̥] (see [[#Trilled affricates]]), [[Blackfoot language|Blackfoot]] has {{IPA|[ks]}}. Other heterorganic affricates are reported for [[Northern Sotho]]{{sfnp|Johnson|2003}} and other [[Bantu languages]] such as [[Phuthi language|Phuthi]], which has alveolar–labiodental affricates {{IPA|[tf]}} and {{IPA|[dv]}}, and [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]], which has bilabial–palatoalveolar affricates {{IPA|[pʃ]}} and {{IPA|[bʒ]}}. [[Djeoromitxi language|Djeoromitxi]] has {{IPA|[ps]}} and {{IPA|[bz]}}.{{sfnp|Pires|1992}}

===Phonation, coarticulation and other variants===
The coronal and dorsal places of articulation attested as [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] as well: {{IPA|[tθʼ, tsʼ, tɬʼ, tʃʼ, tɕʼ, tʂʼ, c𝼆ʼ, kxʼ, k𝼄ʼ, qχʼ]}}. Several Khoisan languages such as [[Taa language|Taa]] are reported to have voiced ejective affricates, but these are actually ''pre''-voiced: {{IPA|[dtsʼ, dtʃʼ]}}. Affricates are also commonly [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]: {{IPA|[ɱp̪fʰ, tθʰ, tsʰ, tɬʰ, tʃʰ, tɕʰ, tʂʰ]}}, [[breathy voice|murmured]]: {{IPA|[ɱb̪vʱ, dðʱ, dzʱ, dɮʱ, dʒʱ, dʑʱ, dʐʱ]}}, and [[prenasalized stop|prenasalized]]: {{IPA|[ⁿdz, ⁿtsʰ, ᶯɖʐ, ᶯʈʂʰ]}} (as in [[Hmong languages|Hmong]]). [[Labialization|Labialized]], [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]], [[velarization|velarized]], and [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] affricates are also common. Affricates may also have phonemic length, that is, affected by a [[chroneme]], as in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Karelian language|Karelian]].

==Phonological representation==
{{expand section|date=September 2015}}
In phonology, affricates tend to behave similarly to stops, taking part in phonological patterns that fricatives do not. {{Harvp|Kehrein|2002}} analyzes phonetic affricates as phonological stops.{{sfnp|Kehrein|2002|p=1}} A sibilant or lateral (and presumably trilled) stop can be realized phonetically only as an affricate and so might be analyzed phonemically as a sibilant or lateral stop. In that analysis, affricates other than sibilants and laterals are a phonetic mechanism for distinguishing stops at similar places of articulation (like more than one labial, coronal, or dorsal place). For example, [[Chipewyan language|Chipewyan]] has laminal dental {{IPA|[t̪͡θ]}} vs. apical alveolar {{IPA|[t]}}; other languages may contrast velar {{IPA|[k]}} with palatal {{IPA|[c͡ç]}} and uvular {{IPA|[q͡χ]}}.
Affricates may also be a strategy to increase the phonetic contrast between aspirated or ejective and tenuis consonants.

According to {{Harvp|Kehrein|2002}}, no language contrasts a non-sibilant, non-lateral affricate with a stop at the same place of articulation and with the same phonation and airstream mechanism, such as {{IPA|/t̪/}} and {{IPA|/t̪θ/}} or {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/kx/}}.

In [[distinctive feature|feature-based phonology]], affricates are distinguished from stops by the feature [+delayed release].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayes|first=Bruce|year=2009|title=Introductory Phonology|publisher=Blackwell|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductoryphon00haye/page/79 79–80]|isbn=978-1-4051-8411-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryphon00haye/page/79}}</ref>

== Affrication ==
Affrication (sometimes called ''affricatization'') is a [[sound change]] by which a consonant, usually a [[stop consonant|stop]] or [[fricative consonant|fricative]], changes into an affricate. Examples include:
* [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] {{IPA|/k/}} > Modern English {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}, as in ''chin'' (cf. {{langx|de|Kinn}}: [[Anglo-Frisian palatalization]])
* [[Semitic languages#Phonology|Proto-Semitic]] {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > Standard Arabic {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} in all positions, as in {{lang|ar|جمل}} {{IPA|/d͡ʒamal/}} ({{Transliteration|ar|jamal}}) {{gloss|camel}} (cf. [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]: גמלא (gamlā'), {{langx|am|ግመል}} ({{Transliteration|am|gəmäl}}), and {{langx|he|גמל}} ({{Transliteration|he|gamal}})).
* Early Modern English {{IPA|/tj, dj/}} > {{IPA|/t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/}} ([[yod-coalescence]])
* {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} > {{IPA|/pf, t͡s, kx/}} in the [[High German consonant shift]]
* {{IPA|[t]}} > {{IPA|[t͡s, t͡ʃ]}} before {{IPA|[ɯᵝ, i]}} respectively in 16th-century Japanese<ref>{{cite book|last1=Takayama|first1=Tomoaki|editor1-last=Kubozono|editor1-first=Haruo|title=Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9781614511984|pages=629–630|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ|access-date=12 June 2015|chapter=15– Historical Phonology|archive-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502212737/https://books.google.com/books?id=8vFeCAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{IPA|[r]}} > {{IPA|[d͡ʒ, d͡ʑ]}} word-initially in [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Csúcs|first=Sándor|title=Die Rekonstruktion der permischen Grundsprache|year=2005|series=Bibliotheca Uralica|volume=13|language=German|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|location=Budapest|isbn=963-05-8184-1|page=139}}</ref>
* [[Polish language|Polish]] {{IPA|/tʲ, dʲ/}} > {{IPA|/t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ/}}

== Pre-affrication ==
In rare instances, a fricative–stop contour may occur. This is the case in dialects of [[Scottish Gaelic]] that have velar frication {{IPA|[ˣ]}} where other dialects have [[pre-aspiration]]. For example, in the [[Harris, Scotland|Harris]] dialect there is {{lang|gd|seachd}} {{IPA|[ʃaˣkʰ]}} 'seven' and {{lang|gd|ochd}} {{IPA|[ɔˣkʰ]}} 'eight' (or {{IPA|[ʃax͜kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[ɔx͜kʰ]}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laver |first=John |title=Principles of Phonetics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-45031-7 |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |pages=374 |author-link=John Laver}}</ref> Richard Wiese argues this is the case for word-initial fricative-plosive sequences in German, and coined the term '''suffricate''' for such contours.<ref>Harry van der Hulst & Nancy Ritter (2012: 175) ''The Syllable: Views and Facts''. De Gruyter.</ref> [[Awngi language|Awngi]] has 2 suffricates {{IPA|/s͡t/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ͡t/}} according to some analyses.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = SIL International| last = Joswig| first = Andreas| title = The Phonology of Awngi| series = SIL Electronic Working Papers| year = 2010 | url = https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/85/80/86/85808610450908625222845020214713662117/silewp2010_003.pdf}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Apical consonant]]
* [[Hush consonant]]
* [[Laminal consonant]]
* [[Index of phonetics articles]]

==Notes==

{{NoteFoot}}

==References==

{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
|last1=Collins
|first1=Beverley
|last2=Mees
|first2=Inger M.
|year=2003
|orig-year=First published 1981
|title=The Phonetics of English and Dutch
|edition=5th
|place=Leiden
|publisher=Brill Publishers
|isbn=9004103406
}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hoijer |first1=Harry |last2=Opler |first2=Morris E. |year=1938 |title=Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts |series=The University of Chicago publications in anthropology; Linguistic series |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780598942005}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Howell |first1=Peter |last2=Rosen |first2=Stuart |date=March 1983 |title=Production and perception of rise time in the voiceless affricate/fricative distinction |url=https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/73/3/976-984/761509 |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |language=en |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=976–984 |doi=10.1121/1.389023 |pmid=6841824 |bibcode=1983ASAJ...73..976H |issn=0001-4966|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Iskarous |first1=Khalil |last2=McDonough |first2=Joyce |last3=Whalen |first3=D. H. |date=2012-01-25 |title=A gestural account of the velar fricative in Navajo |journal=Laboratory Phonology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=195–210 |doi=10.1515/lp-2012-0011 |issn=1868-6354 |pmc=3994885 |pmid=24765216}}
* {{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Keith |year=2003 |title=Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics |edition=2nd |location=Malden, MA |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1405101233 |title-link=Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics}}
* {{cite book 
|last1=Kehrein
|first1=Wolfgang
|title=Phonological representation and phonetic phasing: affricates and laryngeals
|date=2002
|location=Tübingen
|isbn=9783484304666
|doi=10.1515/9783110911633
|publisher= De Gruyter
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ladefoged |first=P. |year=2006 |title=A Course in Phonetics |edition=5th |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1413006889}}
* {{SOWL}}
* {{Cite book |last=Maddieson |first=Ian |year=1984 |title=Patterns of sounds |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26536-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=McDonough |first=Joyce |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-010-0207-3 |title=The Navajo Sound System |date=2003 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-1351-5 |series=Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory |volume=55 |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-0207-3}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=Joyce |last2=Wood |first2=Valerie |date=July 2008 |title=The stop contrasts of the Athabaskan languages |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0095447007000496 |journal=Journal of Phonetics |language=en |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=427–449 |doi=10.1016/j.wocn.2007.11.001|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Mitani |first1=Shigeki |last2=Kitama |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Sato |first3=Yu |date=September 2006 |title=Voiceless affricate/fricative distinction by frication duration and amplitude rise slope |url=https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/120/3/1600-1607/899853 |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |language=en |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=1600–1607 |doi=10.1121/1.2221390 |pmid=17004482 |bibcode=2006ASAJ..120.1600M |issn=0001-4966|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite thesis 
  |last= Pires
  |first= Nádia N.
  |date= 1992
  |title= Estudo da gramática da língua Jeoromitxi (Jabuti). 
  |type= MA thesis
  |publisher= [[Universidade Estadual de Campinas]]
  |url=http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:pires-1992
  }}
* {{citation
|last1=Valenzuela
|first1=Pilar M.
|last2=Márquez Pinedo
|first2=Luis
|last3=Maddieson
|first3=Ian
|year=2001
|title=Shipibo
|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume=31
|issue=2
|pages=281–285
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40852342
|doi=10.1017/S0025100301002109
|doi-access=free
|access-date=2021-07-17
|archive-date=2021-12-02
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202124455/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40852342_Illustrations_of_the_IPA_Shipibo
|url-status=live
}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Young |first1=R. |last2=Morgan |first2=W. |year=1987 |title=The Navajo Language |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=9780826310149}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://calleteach.wordpress.com/2010/01/10/sounds-of-english-affricates/ Affricates in English]

{{IPA navigation}}
{{Articulation navbox}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Affricate Consonant}}
[[Category:Manner of articulation]]
[[Category:Affricates| ]]