Editing Agulhas Current

{{short description|Western boundary current of the southwest Indian Ocean that flows down the east coast of Africa}}
[[File:Benguela and Agulhas Currents.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|The courses of the  warm Agulhas current (red) along the east coast of South Africa, and the cold Benguela current (blue) along the west coast. The Agulhas Current is formed by the confluence of the warm [[Mozambique Current|Mozambique]] and [[East Madagascar Current]]s, which meet south-west of Madagascar (not shown in the diagram). The cold [[Benguela Current]] originates from upwelling of water from the cold depths of the Atlantic Ocean against the west coast of the continent. The two currents do not "meet" anywhere along the south coast of Africa.]]
The '''Agulhas Current''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|l|ə|s}}) is the [[western boundary current]] of the southwest [[Indian Ocean]]. It flows south along the east coast of [[Africa]] from 27°S to 40°S. It is narrow, swift and strong. It is suggested that it is the largest western boundary current in the [[world ocean]], with an estimated net transport of 70 [[sverdrup]]s (70 million cubic metres per second), as western boundary currents at comparable latitudes transport less&nbsp;&mdash; [[Brazil Current]] (16.2 Sv), [[Gulf Stream]] (34 Sv), [[Kuroshio]] (42 Sv).<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryden|Beal|Duncan|2003|loc=Discussion, p. 491}}</ref>

==Physical properties==
The sources of the Agulhas Current are the [[East Madagascar Current]] (25 Sv), the [[Mozambique Current]] (5 Sv) and a recirculated part of the south-west Indian subgyre south of Madagascar (35 Sv).<ref>{{Harvnb|Stramma|Lutjeharms|1997|loc=Abstract}}</ref> The net transport of the Agulhas Current is estimated as 100 Sv. The flow of the Agulhas Current is directed by the [[topography]]. The current follows the [[continental shelf]] from [[Maputo]] to the tip of the [[Agulhas Bank]] (250&nbsp;km south of [[Cape Agulhas]]). Here the momentum of the current overcomes the [[vorticity]] balance holding the current to the topography and the current leaves the shelf.<ref name="Siedler">{{Harvnb|Siedler|Church|Gould|2001|pp=310–313}}</ref>
The current reaches its maximum transport near the Agulhas Bank where it ranges between 95 and 136 Sv.<ref name="Baum">{{Harvnb|Baum|2014}}</ref>

The core of the current is defined as where the surface velocities reach {{Convert|100|cm/s|abbr=on}}, which gives the core an average width of {{Convert|34|km|abbr=on}}.  The mean peak speed is {{Convert|136|cm/s|abbr=on}}, but the current can reach {{Convert|245|cm/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Baum" />

===Agulhas meanders and Natal pulses===
As the Agulhas Current flows south along the African east coast, it tends to bulge inshore frequently, a deviation from the current's normal path known as Agulhas Current meanders (ACM).  These bulges are occasionally (1-7 times per year) followed by a much larger offshore bulge, known as Natal pulses (NP).  Natal pulses move along the coast at {{Convert|20|km|abbr=on}} per day.  An ACM can bulge up to {{Convert|20|km|abbr=on}} and a NP up to {{Convert|120|km|abbr=on}} from the current's mean position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jackson|Rainville|Roberts|McQuald|2012}}</ref>
The AC passes {{Convert|34|km|abbr=on}} offshore and an ACM can reach {{Convert|123|km|abbr=on}} offshore.  When the AC meanders, its width broadens from {{Convert|88|km|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|125|km|abbr=on}} and its velocity weakens from {{Convert|208|cm/s|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|136|cm/s|abbr=on}}.  An ACM induces a strong inshore counter-current.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leber|Beal|2012}}</ref>

Large-scale cyclonic meanders known as Natal pulses are formed as the Agulhas Current reaches the continental shelf on the South African east-coast (i.e. the eastern Agulhas Bank off [[Natal Province|Natal]]).  As these pulses moves along the coast on the Agulhas Bank, they tend to pinch off Agulhas rings from the Agulhas Current.  Such a [[ring shedding]] can be triggered by a Natal pulse alone, but sometimes meanders on the [[Agulhas Return Current]] merge to contribute to the shedding of an Agulhas ring.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leeuwen|Ruijter|Lutjeharms|2000|loc=Abstract}}</ref>

===Retroflection===
In the southeast [[Atlantic Ocean]] the current [[retroflect]]s (turns back on itself) in the [[Agulhas Retroflection]] due to shear interactions with the strong [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]], also known as the "[[West Wind Drift]]" despite referring to the ocean current rather than to the surface winds.  This water becomes the Agulhas Return Current, rejoining the [[Indian Ocean Gyre]]. It is estimated that up to 85 Sv (Sv) of the net transport is returned to the [[Indian Ocean]] through the retroflection.  The remaining water is transported into the [[South Atlantic Gyre]] in the Agulhas Leakage.  Along with direct branch currents, this leakage takes place in surface water filaments, and Agulhas Eddies.

===Agulhas leakage and rings===
[[File:Agulhas Current NLOM .png|thumb|Agulhas rings are peeled off the Agulhas Current in the [[Agulhas Basin]] where it retroflects back into the Indian Ocean.]]{{Main|Agulhas Leakage}}
It is estimated that as much as 15 Sv of [[Indian Ocean]] water is leaked directly into the [[South Atlantic]].  10 Sv of this is relatively warm, salty [[thermocline]] water, with the remaining 5 Sv being cold, low salinity [[Antarctic Intermediate Water]].  Since Indian Ocean water is significantly warmer (24-26&nbsp;°C) and saltier than South Atlantic water, the Agulhas Leakage is a significant source of salt and heat for the South Atlantic Gyre.  This heat flux is believed to contribute to the high rate of evaporation in the South Atlantic, a key mechanism in the [[Thermohaline circulation|Meridional Overturning Circulation]]. A small amount of the Agulhas Leakage joins the [[North Brazil Current]], carrying Indian Ocean water into the [[North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre]].<ref name="Siedler" />  Before reaching the [[Caribbean Sea]], this leakage gets heated up by the sun around the equator, and, when finally joining the [[Gulf Stream]], this warm and salty water contributes to the formation of deep water in the North Atlantic.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schiele|2014}}</ref>

Surface water filaments are estimated to account for up to 13% of the total salt transport from the Agulhas Current into the [[Benguela Current]] and South Atlantic Gyre.  Due to surface dissipation, these filaments are not believed to significantly contribute to inter-basin heat flux.<ref name="Siedler" />

Where the Agulhas turns back on itself the loop of the retroflection pinches off periodically, releasing an [[eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddy]] into the South Atlantic Gyre. These [[warm core ring|"Agulhas Rings"]] enter the flow of the Benguela Current or are advected northwestward across the South Atlantic where they join the [[South Equatorial Current]], where they dissipate into the larger background currents.  These [[anticyclonic]] [[warm core ring]]s are estimated to have a transport of 3-9 Sv each, in total injecting salt at a rate of 2.5<math>\cdot</math>10<sup>6</sup> kg/s and heat at a rate of 45 [[terawatt|TW]].<ref name="Siedler" />

====Paleoclimate====
Since the [[Pleistocene]], the buoyancy of the South Atlantic [[thermocline]] and the strength of the Atlantic [[meridional overturning circulation]] has been regulated by the shedding of warm, saline Agulhas Rings.  The Agulhas leakage affects the Atlantic thermocline on a decadal timescale and over centuries it can change the buoyancy of the Atlantic thermocline and therefore the formation rates of [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW).<ref>{{Harvnb|Simon|Arthur|Hall|Peeters|2013|loc=Introduction, pp. 101-103}}</ref>

The provenance of ocean sediments can be determined by analysing [[Terrigenous sediment|terrigenous]] [[strontium]] isotope ratios in deep ocean cores.  Sediments underlying the Agulhas Current and Return Current have significantly higher ratios than surrounding sediments.  Franzese et al. 2009 analysed cores in the South Atlantic deposited during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM, 20&nbsp;000 years ago), and concluded that the Agulhas leakage was significantly reduced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Franzese|first1=A|last2=Hemming|first2=S|author-link2=Sidney Hemming|last3=Goldstein|first3=S|last4=Anderson|first4=R|date=2006-10-15|title=Reduced Agulhas Leakage during the Last Glacial Maximum inferred from an integrated provenance and flux study|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|language=en|volume=250|issue=1–2|pages=72–88|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2006.07.002|bibcode=2006E&PSL.250...72F}}</ref>  The trajectory of the current was the same during the LGM and that the reduced leakage must be explained by a weaker current.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Franzese|first1=Allison M.|last2=Hemming|first2=Sidney R.|author-link2=Sidney Hemming|last3=Goldstein|first3=Steven L.|date=2009|title=Use of strontium isotopes in detrital sediments to constrain the glacial position of the Agulhas Retroflection|journal=Paleoceanography|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2008PA001706|bibcode=2009PalOc..24.2217F|doi-access=free}}</ref>  Furthermore, it can be predicted that a stronger Agulhas Current will result in a more eastward retroflection and an increased Agulhas leakage.  {{Harvnb|Simon|Arthur|Hall|Peeters|2013}}, however, noted that changes in temperature and salinity in the Agulhas leakage is at least partly the result of variability in the composition in the current itself and can be a poor indicator of the strength of the leakage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simon|Arthur|Hall|Peeters|2013|loc=Conclusions, p. 110}}</ref>

===Rogue waves===
The south-east coast of South Africa is on the main shipping route between the Middle-East and Europe/the U.S. and even large ships have sustained major damage because of [[rogue wave]]s in the area where these waves occasionally can reach a height of more than {{Convert|30|m|abbr=on}}.  Some 30 larger ships were severely damaged or sunk by rogue waves along the South African east-coast between 1981 and 1991.<ref>{{Harvnb|Forsberg|Gerber|2012}}</ref>

===Agulhas Undercurrent===
Directly under the core of the Agulhas Current, at a depth of {{Convert|800|m|abbr=on}}, there is an Agulhas Undercurrent which flows equatorward.<ref>{{Harvnb|RSMAS|2005}}</ref>  The undercurrent is {{Convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} deep and {{Convert|40|km|abbr=on}} wide and can reach {{Convert|90|cm/s|abbr=on}} at {{Convert|1400|m}}, one of greatest speeds observed in any current at this depth, but it also displays a great variance with a transport of 4.2±5.2 Sv.  The undercurrent can represent as much as 40% of the Indian Ocean [[meridional overturning circulation|overturning transport]].<ref name="Beal-2009-Intro">{{Harvnb|Beal|2009|loc=Abstract, Introduction, pp. 2436-2437}}</ref>

Below {{Convert|1800|m|abbr=on}} a separate layer of the undercurrent can be distinguished: the more coherent [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW) which transports an average of 2.3±3.0 Sv.<ref name="Beal-2009-Intro" />  NADW rounds the southern tip of Africa after which the major part (9 Sv) flow eastward and a smaller part (2 Sv) northward through the Agulhas Undercurrent and into the [[Natal Valley]] (the basin between South Africa and the Mocambique Plateau); remnants of NADW has been observed in the [[Mozambique Basin]] and [[Mozambique Channel|Channel]].  The undercurrent is more leaky than the Agulhas above, resulting in a relatively well-mixed composition of water masses&nbsp;&mdash; at intermediate depth there is a mixture of [[Antarctic Intermediate Water]] and [[Read Sea Water]].<ref name="Beal-2009-Disc">{{Harvnb|Beal|2009|loc=Discussion and summary, pp. 2448-2449}}</ref>

The periodicity of the meanders and Natal pulses of the Agulhas is matched by the Agulhas Undercurrent.<ref name="Beal-2009-Intro" />  More research is needed but observations seem to indicate that during a meander event the Agulhas moves first onshore, then offshore, and finally onshore again, first weakening then strengthening 10-15 Sv.  At the same time the undercurrent is first squeezed offshore and weakened when the Agulhas moves onshore, then strengthened and forced upward when the Agulhas moves offshore, and finally returns to normal.<ref name="Beal-2009-Disc" />

==Biological properties==
[[File:agulhas chla.png|thumb|Mean chlorophyll-a concentration map of the Agulhas Current for 2009. Note the high productivity water in the Agulhas Retroflection.]]

===Primary production===
The Agulhas acts as an oceanic [[convergence zone]].  Due to [[continuity equation|mass continuity]] this drives surface waters down, resulting in the [[upwelling]] of cold, nutrient rich water south of the current.  Additionally, the convergence tends to increase the concentration of plankton in and around the Agulhas.  Both of these factors result in the area being one of enhanced [[primary production|primary productivity]] as compared to the surrounding waters.  This is especially notable in the Agulhas Retroflection waters, where chlorophyll-a concentrations tend to be significantly higher than the surrounding South Indian Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean waters.<ref name="Mann">{{Harvnb|Mann|Lazier|2006}}</ref>

===Impact of rings===
[[Warm core ring]]s are known to have lower primary productivity than surrounding cold waters.  Agulhas Rings are no exception, and have been observed to carry waters with low [[Chlorophyll a|chlorophyll-a]] concentration water into the [[South Atlantic]]. The size of [[phytoplankton]] in Agulhas Rings tends to be smaller than in the surrounding water (around 20&nbsp;μm in diameter).<ref name="Mann" />

Agulhas Rings have also been observed as removing larval and juvenile fish from the continental shelf.  This removal of young fish can result in a reduced [[anchovy]] catch in the [[Benguela Current|Benguela]] system if a ring passes through the fishery.

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Agulhas Passage}}
* {{annotated link|Sardine run}}
* {{portal-inline|Oceans}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite web |last=Baum |first=S. |title=Agulhas Current |year=2014 |publisher=Encyclopedia of Earth |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Agulhas_Current?topic=49523 |access-date=15 May 2015}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Baum|2014}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last=Beal |first=L. M. |author-link=Lisa Beal |title=A time series of Agulhas Undercurrent transport |year=2009 |journal=Journal of Physical Oceanography |volume=39 |issue=10 |pages=2436–2450 |doi=10.1175/2009JPO4195.1 |bibcode=2009JPO....39.2436B |doi-access=free}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Beal|2009}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Bryden |first1=H. L. |last2=Beal |first2=L. M. |author-link2=Lisa Beal |last3=Duncan |first3=L. M. |title=Structure and transport of the Agulhas Current and its temporal variability |year=2003 |journal=Journal of Oceanography |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=479–492 |url=http://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/JO/pdf/6103/61030479.pdf |access-date=15 May 2015 |doi=10.1007/s10872-005-0057-8 |s2cid=55798640}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Bryden|Beal|Duncan|2003}} -->
* {{Cite web |last1=Forsberg |first1=B. |last2=Gerber |first2=M. |year=2012 |title=Rogue Waves - is forecasting possible? |url=http://amath.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2013/10/1227001050/Rogue_waves.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518103238/https://amath.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2013/10/1227001050/Rogue_waves.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=15 May 2015}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Forsberg|Gerber|2012}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Franzese |first1=A. M. |last2=Goldstein |first2=S. L. |last3=Skrivanek |first3=A. L. |title=Assessing the role of the Subtropical Front in regulating Agulhas leakage at the Last Glacial Termination |year=2012 |publisher=American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference |url=http://chapman.agu.org/agulhas/files/2012/12/Franzese1.pdf |journal= |access-date=15 February 2015}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Franzese|Goldstein|Skrivanek|2012}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=J. M. |last2=Rainville |first2=L. |last3=Roberts |first3=M. J. |last4=McQuald |first4=C. D. |last5=Porri |first5=F. |last6=Durgadoo |first6=J. |last7=Blastoch |first7=A. |title=Mesoscale bio-physical interactions between the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Bank, South Africa |year=2012 |publisher=American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference |url=http://chapman.agu.org/agulhas/files/2012/11/Jackson.pdf |journal= |access-date=15 February 2015}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Jackson|Rainville|Roberts|McQuald|2012}} -->
* {{Cite web |last1=Leber |first1=G. |last2=Beal |first2=L. |author-link2=Lisa Beal |title=Velocity Structure and Transport of the Meandering vs. Non-Meandering Agulhas Current |year=2012 |publisher=RSMAS |url=http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/assets/pdfs/mpo/seminars/2012fall/Leber_Abstract.pdf |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409205902/http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/assets/pdfs/mpo/seminars/2012fall/Leber_Abstract.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-09 |url-status=dead}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Leber|Beal|2012}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Leeuwen |first1=P. J., van |last2=Ruijter |first2=W. P. M., de |last3=Lutjeharms |first3=J. R. E. |author3-link=Johann Lutjeharms |title=Natal pulses and the formation of Agulhas rings |year=2000 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=105 |issue=C3 |pages=6425–6436 |doi=10.1029/1999jc900196 |bibcode=2000JGR...105.6425V |doi-access=free}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Leeuwen|Ruijter|Lutjeharms|2000}} -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Mann |first1=K. H. |last2=Lazier |first2=J.R. |title=Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems: Biological-Physical Interactions in the Oceans |year=2006 |edition=3rd |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1405111188}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Mann|Lazier|2006}} -->
* {{Cite web |title=The Agulhas current |year=2005 |publisher=Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science, Miami University |url=http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/indian/agulhas.html |access-date=15 May 2015 |ref={{Harvid|RSMAS|2005}}}}
* {{Cite web |last=Schiele |first=Edwin |title=Ocean Conveyor Belt Impact |year=2014 |publisher=Ocean Motion |url=http://oceanmotion.org/html/impact/conveyor.htm |access-date=15 May 2015}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Schiele|2014}} -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Siedler |first1=G. |last2=Church |first2=J. |last3=Gould |first3=J. |title=Ocean Circulation & Climate |year=2001 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780080491974 |oclc=156788726}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Siedler|Church|Gould|2001}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Simon |first1=M. H. |last2=Arthur |first2=K. L. |last3=Hall |first3=I. R. |last4=Peeters |first4=F. J. C. |last5=Loveday |first5=B. R. |last6=Barker |first6=S. |last7=Zieglera |first7=M. |last8=Zahn |first8=R. |title=Millennial-scale Agulhas Current variability and its implications for salt-leakage through the Indian–Atlantic Ocean Gateway |year=2013 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=383 |pages=101–112 |url=http://www.climategeology.ethz.ch/publications/2013_Simon_et_al.pdf |access-date=15 May 2015 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2013.09.035 |bibcode=2013E&PSL.383..101S |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213700/http://www.climategeology.ethz.ch/publications/2013_Simon_et_al.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-03 |url-status=dead}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Simon|Arthur|Hall|Peeters|2013}} -->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Stramma |first1=L. |last2=Lutjeharms |first2=J. |title=The flow field of the subtropical gyre in the South Indian Ocean into the Southeast Atlantic Ocean: a case study |year=1997 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=99 |pages=14053–14070 |doi=10.1029/96JC03455 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/6196/1/Stramma_et_al-1997-Journal_of_Geophysical_Research__Oceans_%281978-2012%29.pdf}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Stramma|Lutjeharms|1997}} -->
{{Refend}}

{{Ocean}}
{{Indian Ocean}}

{{coord|30|00|S|35|00|E|source:kolossus-svwiki|display=title}}


[[Category:Currents of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Climate of Africa]]
[[Category:Marine ecoregions]]
[[Category:Rogue wave incidents]]
[[Category:Temperate Southern Africa]]