Editing Ajtony

{{Short description|11th century ruler of Banat}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{good article}}
{{History of Banat}}
'''Ajtony''', '''Ahtum''' or '''Achtum''' ({{langx|hu|Ajtony}}, {{langx|bg|Охтум}}, {{langx|ro|Ahtum}}, {{langx|sr|Ахтум}}) was an early-11th-century ruler in the territory now known as [[Banat]] in present [[Romania]] and [[Serbia]]. His primary source is the ''[[Long Life of Saint Gerard]]'', a 14th-century [[hagiography]]. Ajtony was a powerful ruler who owned many horses, cattle and sheep and was baptised according to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] rite in [[Vidin]]. He taxed salt which was transferred to King [[Stephen I of Hungary]] on the [[Mureș River]]. The king sent [[Csanád]], Ajtony's former commander-in-chief, against him at the head of a large army. Csanád defeated and killed Ajtony, occupying his realm. In the territory, at least one [[County (Kingdom of Hungary)|county]] and a [[Roman Catholic]] [[diocese]] were established.

Historians disagree on the year of Ajtony's defeat; it may have occurred in 1002, 1008 or between 1027 and 1030. His ethnicity is also a subject of historical debate; he may have been [[Hungarians|Hungarian]], [[Kabars|Kabar]] or [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg]].

==Background==
[[Image:SanctiGerardi.jpg|thumb |right |alt=The first page of a book depicting a coat-of-arms that is held by two naked angels |1597 edition of the ''[[Long Life of Saint Gerard]]'']]

The [[Magyars]] (or [[Hungarians]]), who had lived on the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic steppe]] for decades, invaded the [[Carpathian Basin]] after their defeat by a coalition of [[Bulgarians]] and [[Pechenegs]] about 895 AD.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=39}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp=76–77}} [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]] wrote that the seven [[Magyar tribes]] formed a confederation with the Kabars.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=39–40}} Although the Kabars had originally lived in the [[Khazar Khaganate]], they rebelled against the [[Khazars]] and joined the Magyars on the Pontic steppe.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=72}}

According to churchman [[Regino of Prüm]], Constantine Porphyrogenitus and other contemporary sources, the Magyars fought the [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavarians]], Bulgarians, [[Duchy of Carinthia|Carinthians]], [[Eastern Francia|Franks]] and [[Great Moravia|Moravians]] in the Carpathian Basin.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp=76–77}}{{sfn|Deletant|1992|pp=73–74}} Among the Magyars' opponents the same sources noted many local rulers, including [[Svatopluk I of Moravia]], [[Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria|Luitpold of Bavaria]] and [[Braslav, Duke of Lower Pannonia]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=11}}{{sfn|Györffy|1988|p=39}} The ''Gesta Hungarorum''{{mdash}}the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle, written after 1150{{sfn|Madgearu|2005|pp=15–20}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=97}}{{mdash}}instead mentioned [[Glad (duke)|Glad]], lord of the lands between the [[Danube]] and the [[Mureș River|Mureș]] (now known as the Banat in [[Romania]] and [[Serbia]]) and other local rulers absent from the earlier sources.{{sfn|Deletant|1992|pp=73–74}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=11}}{{sfn|Györffy|1988|p=39}} Therefore, the credibility of the ''Gesta'' reports is a subject of scholarly debate.{{sfn|Deletant|1992|p=85}} Although [[Vlad Georgescu]], Ioan Aurel Pop and other historians describe Glad as one of the local Romanian rulers who attempted to resist the invading Hungarians,{{sfn|Deletant|1992|p=85}}{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|pp=14–15}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|pp=96–97, 102–103}} other scholars{{mdash}}including Pál Engel and [[György Györffy]]{{mdash}}call him one of the dozen "imaginary figures" invented by [[Anonymus (notary of Béla III)|Anonymus]] (author of the ''Gesta'') as foes in the [[Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=11}}{{sfn|Györffy|1988|pp=84–86}}

Constantine Porphyrogenitus identified "the whole settlement of Turkey" ([[Principality of Hungary|Hungary]]) with the basins of five rivers—the [[Criș River|Criș]], Mureș, [[Timiș River|Timiș]], Tisza and the unidentified "Toutis"<ref>''Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio'' (ch. 40), pp. 177–179.</ref>—around 950, indicating that the land east of the Tisza was ruled by the Hungarians at that time.{{sfn|Tóth|1999|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=41}} The emperor apparently received information about the [[Pannonian Basin|Carpathian Basin]] situation from [[Termatzus]], [[Bulcsú (chieftain)|Bulcsú]] and [[Gyula II|Gylas]], three Hungarian chieftains who visited [[Constantinople]] during the mid-10th century.{{sfn|Tóth|1999|p=30}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=189–190}} According to Byzantine historian [[John Skylitzes]], Bulcsú and Gylas were baptised during their visit.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp=129–130}} Bulcsú, Skylitzes wrote, still "violated his contract with God and often invaded" the Byzantine Empire; Gylas, however, "remained faithful to Christianity"<ref name="Skylitzes_9.5_231">''John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057'' (ch. 9.5), p. 231.</ref> and made no further inroads against the empire.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|pp=129–130}} Skylitzes also mentioned a Greek monk, Hierotheos, who was ordained bishop for the Hungarians.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=147}} Hierotheos accompanied Gylas back to Hungary and "converted many from the barbaric fallacy to Christianity".<ref name="Skylitzes_9.5_231"/>{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=24}} Most 10th-century Byzantine coins and [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] have been unearthed around the confluence of the Tisza and the Mureș, particularly in the Banat.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=196}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=130}} Tudor Sălăgean, [[Florin Curta]] and other historians posit that Gylas's lands must have been in these territories, but their theory is not universally accepted.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=147}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=196}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=130}}

Unlike Gylas, who chose the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians]], opted for [[Western Christianity]]{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=131}} and a cleric from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (according to most scholars, Bruno from the [[Abbey of Saint Gall]]) baptised him during the 970s.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=137}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=26}} [[Thietmar of Merseburg]] and other 11th-century authors emphasized that Géza was a cruel ruler, suggesting that the unification of the Hungarian chieftains' lands began under him.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=26}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=132}} Géza was succeeded by his son, [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen]], who was crowned the first [[king of Hungary]] in 1000 or 1001.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=26}}

=={{anchor|Ajtony in the primary sources}}In primary sources==
[[Image:Ahtum sermon03 01.png|thumb|right |alt=Map depicting Ajtony's realm bordered by the Kingdom of Hungary, the Transylvanian duchy of Gyula and a duchy of one Sermon| Ajtony's realm]]
[[Image:Portrayal of Stephen I, King of Hungary on the coronation pall.jpg|thumb|right |alt=A gilded cloat depicting a bearded man with large eyes wearing royal insignia |Stephen I of Hungary, whose army conquered Ajtony's realm, on the Hungarian coronation pall (made in 1031)]]

The principal source of Ajtony's life is the ''[[Long Life of Saint Gerard]]'', compiled from a number of earlier sources in the early 14th century.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=130}} According to modern historians (including [[Carlile Aylmer Macartney]] and Florin Curta), all information on Ajtony incorporated into the ''Long Life'' was based on a ballad about the heroic deeds of [[Csanád]]—Ajtony's former commander-in-chief—because a shorter version of Bishop [[Gerard of Csanád]]'s life does not mention Ajtony.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Macartney|1953|p=158}} Most historians agree that the ballad was composed shortly after Ajtony's death.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Macartney|1953|p=158}} In addition to the ''Long Life'', Ajtony is mentioned in the ''Gesta Hungarorum'';{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=143}} the Hungarian chronicle was written after around 1150.{{sfn|Pop|1996|pp=76, 129–130}} According to the ''Gesta'', Ajtony was descended from [[Glad (duke)|Glad]] (in the same source, lord of the Banat); however, its credibility is questioned.{{sfn|Curta|2001|pp=144–145}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=130}}{{sfn|Macartney|1953|p=79}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=79}} In a 1499 sermon the [[Franciscan]] [[Osvát Laskai]] wrote{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=130}} that Ajtony was from the [[Nyírség]] region, but no evidence exists to indicate that Laskai knew his place of birth.{{sfn|Györffy|2000|p=164}}

Ajtony's name, recorded in the earliest sources as "Ohtun" or "Achtum", is of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin.{{sfn|Hosszú|2012|p=125}}{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=32}} According to linguist Loránd Benkő, his name is rooted in the Turkic word for golden ''(altun)'' and changed in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]].{{sfn|Hosszú|2012|p=125}}{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=32}} Place names also echo his name; an abbey named Ahtunmonustura (Ajtony's monastery) existed in [[Csanád County]] and a village (Ahthon) in [[Krassó County]], and a settlement named [[Aiton, Cluj|Aiton]] exists in Romania.{{sfn|Györffy|1987a|p=846}}{{sfn|Györffy|1987b|pp=341, 471}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=139}}

According to the ''Long Life'', Ajtony's seat was a stronghold on the Mureș ''(urbs Morisena)''.{{sfn|Pop|1996|pp=130–131}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=130}}{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=148}} His realm extended from the Criș in the north to the Danube in the south, and from the Tisza in the west to [[Transylvania]] in the east.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=148}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}} Ajtony was a wealthy ruler who owned horses, cattle and sheep,{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=41}} and was powerful enough to establish customs offices and guards along the Mureș and tax salt carried to Stephen I of Hungary on the river.{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}}{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=250}}

Originally a pagan, Ajtony was baptised according to the Greek rite in [[Vidin]].{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=65}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=248}} Shortly after his baptism, he established a [[Eastern Christian monasticism#Byzantine monasticism|monastery for Greek monks]] at his seat which was dedicated to [[John the Baptist]].{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=248}} Ajtony remained polygamous, with seven wives after his baptism.{{sfn|Bóna|1994|p=127}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=41}} In the ''Long Life'' Ajtony "had taken his power from the Greeks",{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=248}} suggesting that he accepted the Byzantine emperor's suzerainty.{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=149}}

Ajtony's commander-in-chief was Csanád, described in the ''Gesta Hungarorum'' as the "son of Doboka and nephew"<ref name="Anonymus_11_33">''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (ch. 11.), p. 33.</ref> of King Stephen.{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=145}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}} Accused of conspiring against Ajtony, Csanád fled to Stephen; the king prepared to conquer Ajtony's realm,{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}} placing Csanád at the head of a large army.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=250}} After crossing the Tisza, the royal army engaged Ajtony's troops but was forced to withdraw.{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}} In a second battle, Stephen's army routed Ajtony's troops near modern [[Banatsko Aranđelovo]] or at [[Tomnatic]].{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=32}}{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=131}} Csanád killed Ajtony, either on the battlefield (according to the ''Long Life'') or in his stronghold on the Mureș (according to the ''Gesta Hungarorum'').<ref name="Makkai_B_a_W_H">{{cite web |last=Makkai |first=László |title=Transylvania in the medieval Hungarian kingdom (896–1526); From the Hungarian Conquest to the Mongol invasion; White and Black Hungarians |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2001 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/69.html |access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> In the ''Long Life'' Csanád cut out Ajtony's tongue after his death, enabling him to prove that he had killed Ajtony (and exposing Gyula, who had taken credit for the deed in Stephen's presence).<ref name="Makkai_B_a_W_H"/> Archaeologist István Erdélyi said that the [[Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare]], excavated near Ajtony's seat, was connected to the ruler; however, his view has not been universally accepted by scholars.{{sfn|Hosszú|2012|p=125}}{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=33}}

King Stephen granted large estates to Csanád in the lands Ajtony had ruled.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} Ajtony's stronghold, now known as [[Cenad]] ({{langx|hu|Csanád}}), was named for Stephen's commander.{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=132}} The king also appointed Csanád the head (or ''[[ispán]]'') of the [[Csanád County|county]] made up of Ajtony's former realm.{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=145}} Stephen established a [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged–Csanád|Roman Catholic diocese in Cenad]],{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=149}} with the Venetian monk Gerard its first bishop.{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=33}} The Greek monks from Cenad were transferred to a new monastery built by Csanád at Banatsko Aranđelovo.{{sfn|Bóna|1994|pp=127–128}} Ajtony's descendants owned land in the region, indicating that King Stephen had not confiscated all of his predecessor's domain.{{sfn|Szegfű|1994|p=33}}

=={{anchor|Ajtony in modern historiography}}In modern historiography==
Ajtony's ethnicity is debated.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} Historian Paul Stephenson described him as a Magyar chieftain;{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=65}} according to historian László Makkai, he was of Kabar origin<ref name="Makkai_B_a_W_H"/> and his Turkic name may imply that he was a Pecheneg.{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=139}} According to historian Florin Curta he could be Bulgar, Khazar or Pecheneg.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} In Romanian historiography, Ajtony has been considered the last member of a "native" dynasty descended from [[Glad (duke)|Glad]],  who is mentioned in the ''[[Gesta Hungarorum]]'' as opposing the invading Hungarians,{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=144}} historian Alexandru Madgearu wrote that the Latin name of Ajtony's seat ''(urbs Morisena)'' preserved a Romanian form.{{sfn|Madgearu|2005|p=143}}

The date of Ajtony's conquest is also uncertain.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} His close contacts with the Byzantine Empire, including his "Greek rite" baptism in Vidin, show that he ruled after the Byzantine Emperor [[Basil II]] seized Vidin from the Bulgarians in 1002.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=65}}{{sfn|Curta|2001|pp=142–144}} The conflict between Ajtony and King Stephen must have occurred before the king appointed Gerard the first bishop of Csanád in 1030.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=142}} Alexandru Madgearu, who called Ajtony an ally of [[Samuel of Bulgaria]] rather than Emperor Basil II, wrote that Stephen I's army occupied Ajtony's realm in parallel with Basil II's 1002 conquest of Vidin.{{sfn|Madgearu|2005|p=35}} Makkai placed the conquest of Ajtony's realm in 1008.<ref name="Makkai_B_a_W_H"/> According to Pop, Stephen I decided to invade the Banat after a 1027 Pecheneg raid on the Byzantine Empire and Emperor [[Constantine VIII]]'s death the following year.{{sfn|Pop|1996|pp=137–138}} Pop also writes that Ajtony's former duchy was not fully incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary until the 13th century because frequent internal conflicts had enabled the Romanians to preserve their idea of a "Romanian country".{{sfn|Pop|1996|p=140}} Curta rejected the ''Long Life'' account of Ajtony altogether, calling it a "family legend" from a 14th-century hagiography.{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=144}}{{sfn|Berend|Urbańczyk|Wiszewski|2013|p=149}}

==See also==
* [[Gyula III]]
* [[Koppány]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
==={{anchor|Primary sources}}Primary===
{{Refbegin}}
* ''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); ''Anonymus and Master Roger''; CEU Press; {{ISBN|978-963-9776-95-1}}.
* ''Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio'' (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation b Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. {{ISBN|0-88402-021-5}}.
* ''John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057'' (Translated by John Wortley with Introductions by Jean-Claude Cheynet and Bernad Flusin and Notes by Jean-Claude Cheynet) (2010). Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-76705-7}}.
{{Refend}}

==={{anchor|Secondary sources}}Secondary===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berend |first1=Nora |last2=Urbańczyk |first2=Przemysław |last3=Wiszewski |first3=Przemysław |year=2013 |title=Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78156-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bóna |first=István |editor1-last=Köpeczi |editor1-first=Béla |editor2-last=Barta |editor2-first=Gábor |editor3-last=Bóna |editor3-first=István |editor4-last=Makkai |editor4-first=László |editor5-last=Szász |editor5-first=Zoltán |editor6-last=Borus |editor6-first=Judit | title=History of Transylvania |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1994 |pages=109–177 |chapter=The Hungarian–Slav Period (895–1172) |isbn=963-05-6703-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |editor-last=Urbańczyk |editor-first=Przemysław | title=Europe around the year 1000 |publisher=Wydawn. DiG |year=2001 |pages=141–165 |chapter=Transylvania around A.D. 1000 | url =https://www.academia.edu/229524 |isbn=978-83-7181-211-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year=2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt }}
* {{cite book |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |editor-last=Péter |editor-first=László | title=Historians and the History of Transylvania |publisher=Boulder |year=1992 |pages=67–85 |chapter=Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus |isbn=0-88033-229-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |year=2001 |title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher= I.B. Tauris Publishers |isbn=1-86064-061-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Georgescu |first=Vlad |year=1991 |title=The Romanians: A History |publisher=Ohio State University Press |isbn= 0-8142-0511-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |year=1987a  |title=Az Árpád-kori Magyarország történeti földrajza, I: Abaújvár, Arad, Árva, Bács, Baranya, Bars, Békés, Bereg, Beszterce, Bihar, Bodrog, Borsod, Brassó, Csanád és Csongrád megye ''[Historical Geography of Hungary of the Árpáds, Volume I: The Counties of Abaújvár, Arad, Árva, Bács, Baranya, Bars, Békés, Bereg, Beszterce, Bihar, Bodrog, Borsod, Brassó, Csanád and Csongrád]'' |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó | language=Hungarian |isbn= 963-05-4200-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |year=1987b  |title=Az Árpád-kori Magyarország történeti földrajza, III: Heves, Hont, Hunyad, Keve, Kolozs, Komárom, Krassó, Kraszna, Küküllő megye és Kunság ''[Historical Geography of Hungary of the Árpáds, Volume III: The Counties of Heves, Hont, Hunyad, Keve, Kolozs, Komárom, Krassó, Kraszna and Küküllő, and Cumania]'' |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó | language=Hungarian |isbn= 963-05-3613-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |year=1988  |title=Anonymus: Rejtély vagy történeti forrás ''[Anonymous: An Enigma or a Source for History]'' |publisher= Akadémiai Kiadó | language = Hungarian |isbn= 963-05-4868-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Györffy |first=György |year=2000  |title=István király és műve ''[King Stephen and His Work]'' |publisher=Balassi Kiadó | language=Hungarian |isbn=978-963-506-382-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hosszú |first=Gábor |year=2012 |title=Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TyK8azCqC34C |publisher=Rovas Foundation |isbn=978-963-88437-4-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Macartney |first=C. A. |year= 1953  |title=The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-08051-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Madgearu |first= Alexandru |year=2005 |title=The Romanians in the Anonymous'' Gesta Hungarorum'': Truth and Fiction |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Studies |isbn= 973-7784-01-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Pop |first=Ioan Aurel |year=1996|title=Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century: The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State |publisher= Centrul de Studii Transilvane, Fundaţia Culturală Română |isbn=973-577-037-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sălăgean |first=Tudor |editor1-last=Pop|editor1-first=Ioan-Aurel |editor2-last=Bolovan |editor2-first=Ioan | title=History of Romania: Compendium |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies) |year=2005 |pages=133–207 |chapter=Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th&nbsp;Centuries&nbsp;AD) |isbn=978-973-7784-12-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stephenson |first=Paul |year=2000 |title=Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0-521-02756-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Szegfű |first=László |editor1-last=Kristó |editor1-first=Gyula |editor2-last=Engel |editor2-first=Pál |editor3-last=Makk |editor3-first=Ferenc | title=Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század) ''[Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th centuries)]'' |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1994 |pages=32–33, 145 |chapter=Ajtony; Csanád | language = Hungarian |isbn=963-05-6722-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Tóth |first=Sándor László |editor1-last=Prinzing |editor1-first=Günter |editor2-last=Salamon |editor2-first=Maciej | title=Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa 950–1453: Beiträge zu einer table-ronde des XIX. International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Copenhagen 1996 [Byzantium and East Central Europe 950–1453: Contributions to a Round-table Discussion of the 19th International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Copenhagen 1996] |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1999 |pages=22–34 |chapter=The territories of the Hungarian tribal federation around 950 (Some observations on Constantine VII's "Tourkia") |isbn=3-447-04146-3 }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Klepper |first=Nicolae |year=2005 |title=Romania: An Illustrated History |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=0-7818-0935-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/romaniaillustrat00klep }}
* {{cite book |last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |editor-last=Curta |editor-first=Florin | title=East Central & Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |date=2005 |pages=103–120 |chapter=Salt Trade and Warfare: The Rise of Romanian-Slavic Military Organization in Early Medieval Transylvania |isbn=978-0-472-11498-6 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pop |first=Ioan Aurel |year=1999 |title=Romanians and Romania: A Brief History |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-88033-440-1}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041027170018/http://www.eliznik.org.uk/RomaniaHistory/trans-gesta_hun.htm ''Gesta Hungarorum'']
* [http://www.euratlas.com/big/big1000.htm Map]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Banat]]
[[Category:11th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:11th century in Serbia]]
[[Category:11th century in Romania]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:10th-century Hungarian people]]
[[Category:11th-century Hungarian people]]
[[Category:Magyar tribal chieftains]]