Editing Allophone

{{Short description|Phone used to pronounce a single phoneme}}
{{For|the term for someone whose native language is not French or English, typically used in Canada|Allophone (Canada)}}
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{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
[[File:Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg|thumb|A simplified procedure to determine whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes. The cases on the extreme left and the extreme right are those in which the sounds are allophones.]]
{{IPA notice}}
In [[phonology]], an '''allophone''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ə|f|oʊ|n|audio=En-us-allophone.ogg}}; from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἄλλος}}, {{Transliteration|grc|állos}}, 'other' and {{lang|grc|φωνή}}, {{Transliteration|grc|phōnē}}, 'voice, sound') is one of multiple possible spoken sounds{{snd}}or ''[[phone (phonetics)|phones]]''{{snd}}used to pronounce a single [[phoneme]] in a particular language.<ref name="ref00qacid">{{Citation | title=Structure of Language and Its Mathematical Aspects: Proceedings of symposia in applied mathematics | author=R. Jakobson | year=1961 | publisher=AMS Bookstore, 1980 | isbn=978-0-8218-1312-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ou_zOzU9wEwC | quote=''...An allophone is the set of phones contained in the intersection of a maximal set of phonetically similar phones and a primary phonetically related set of phones....''}}</ref> For example, in English, the [[voicelessness|voiceless]] [[plosive]] {{IPAblink|t}} (as in ''stop'' {{IPA|[ˈstɒp]}}) and the [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] form {{IPAblink|tʰ}} (as in ''top'' {{IPA|[ˈtʰɒp]}}) are allophones for the phoneme {{IPA|/t/}},{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as [[Thai language|Central Thai]]. Similarly, in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], {{IPAblink|d}} (as in ''dolor'' {{IPA|es|doˈloɾ|}}) and {{IPAblink|ð}} (as in ''nada'' {{IPA|es|ˈnaða|}}) are allophones for the phoneme {{IPA|/d/}}, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English (as in the difference between ''dare'' and ''there'').

The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called '''positional variants''', but some allophones occur in [[free variation]]. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.

Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes.<ref name="ref89rahec">{{Citation | title=Linguistics and Phonetics | author=B.D. Sharma | date=January 2005 | publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2005 | isbn=978-81-261-2120-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDs8sJ5snrUC | quote=''... The ordinary native speaker is, in fact, often unaware of the allophonic variations of his phonemes ...''}}</ref><ref name="ref06hozep">{{Citation | title=Phonology as human behavior: theoretical implications and clinical applications | author=Y. Tobin | year=1997 | publisher=Duke University Press, 1997 | isbn=978-0-8223-1822-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NmBYJdTJjKkC | quote=''...always found that native speakers are clearly aware of the phonemes of their language but are both unaware of and even shocked by the plethora of allophones and the minutiae needed to distinguish between them....''}}</ref>

==History of concept ==
The term "allophone" was coined by [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]] circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed a cornerstone in consolidating early [[phoneme]] theory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Penny|year=1996|title=The Whorf Theory Complex&nbsp;— A Critical Reconstruction|publisher=John Benjamins |pages=46, 88}}</ref> The term was popularized by [[George L. Trager]] and [[Bernard Bloch (linguist)|Bernard Bloch]] in a 1941 paper on English phonology<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trager|first1=George L.|last2=Bloch|first2=Bernard|title=The syllabic phonemes of English|journal=Language|volume= 17|issue=3|year= 1941|pages=223–246|doi=10.2307/409203 |jstor=409203 }}</ref> and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Dell H. |last1=Hymes|first2=John G. |last2=Fought|title=American Structuralism|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year= 1981|page=99}}</ref>

==Complementary and free-variant allophones==
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Each time a speaker vocalizes a phoneme, they pronounce it differently from previous iterations. There is debate regarding how real and universal phonemes are (see [[phoneme]] for details). Only some of the variation is perceptible to listeners speakers.

There are two types of allophones: complementary allophones and free-variant allophones.

Complementary allophones are not interchangeable. If context requires a speaker to use a specific allophone for a given phoneme (that is, using a different allophone would confuse listeners), the possible allophones are said to be ''complementary''. Each allophone from a complementary set is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a [[phonology|phonological]] process.<ref name="ref47qoref">{{Citation | title=English L2 reading: getting to the bottom | author=Barbara M. Birch | year=2002 | publisher=Psychology Press, 2002 | isbn=978-0-8058-3899-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiHSOxn0zX4C | quote=''...When the occurrence of one allophone is predictable when compared to the other, as in this case, we call this complementary distribution. Complementary distribution means that the allophones are 'distributed' as complements....''}}</ref>

Otherwise, allophones are ''[[free variation|free-variant]]''; speakers choose an allophone by habit or preference.

==Allotone==
An '''allotone''' is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonic]] allophone, such as the [[neutral tone]] in [[Standard Mandarin]].

== Examples ==

=== English ===
{{Main|English phonology#Allophones of consonants|English phonology#Allophones of vowels}}
 
There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.

* [[Aspirated consonant|Aspiration]]: In English, a voiceless plosive {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} is aspirated (has a strong explosion of breath) if it is at the beginning of the first or a stressed syllable in a word. For example, {{IPA|[pʰ]}} as in ''pin'' and {{IPA|[p]}} as in ''spin'' are allophones for the phoneme {{IPA|/p/}} because they cannot be used to distinguish words (in fact, they occur in [[complementary distribution]]). English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is [[unaspirated]] (plain). Many languages [[Aspirated consonant#Usage patterns|treat the two phones differently]].
* Nasal plosion: In English, a plosive ({{IPA|/p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/}}) has nasal plosion if it is followed by a nasal, whether within a word or across a word boundary.
* Partial devoicing of [[sonorant]]s: In English, sonorants ({{IPA|/j, w, l, r, m, n/}}) are partially devoiced after a voiceless sound in the same syllable.
* Complete devoicing of sonorants: In English, a sonorant is completely devoiced after an aspirated plosive ({{IPA|/p, t, k/}}).
* Partial devoicing of [[obstruent]]s: In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound within a word or across a word boundary.
* Retraction: In English, {{IPA|/t, d, n, l/}} are [[Retracted (phonetics)|retracted]] before {{IPA|/r/}}.

Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between a number of (dialect-dependent) [[allophones]] of the phoneme {{IPA|/t/}}:

* post-aspirated {{IPA|[tʰ]}} as in ''top'', 
* unaspirated {{IPA|[t]}} as in ''stop''. 
* glottalized (or rather substituted by the [[glottal stop]]) {{IPA|[ʔ]}} as in ''button'', but many speakers preserve at least an unreleased [[coronal stop]] {{IPA|[ t̚]}}.

In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English;
* flapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}} as in [[American English]] ''water'', 
* nasal(ized) flapped {{IPA|[ɾ&#771;]}} as in [[American English]] ''winter''. 
* unreleased {{IPA|[ t̚]}} as in [[American English]] ''cat'', but other dialects preserve the released {{IPA|[t]}}, or substitute the glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}.

However, speakers may become aware of the differences if{{snd}}for example{{snd}}they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:

*''Night rate'': unreleased {{IPA|[ˈnʌɪt̚.ɹʷeɪt̚]}} (without a [[word space]] between {{IPA|[ . ]}} and {{IPA|[ɹ]}})
*''Nitrate'': aspirated {{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.tʰɹ̥eɪt̚]}} or retracted {{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.t̠ɹ̠̊˔ʷeɪt̚]}}

A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated ''nitrate'' than for the unaspirated ''night rate.'' The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaker, for whom {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/tʰ/}} are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.

One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English {{IPA|/l/}} such as the (palatal) alveolar "light" {{IPA|[l]}} of ''leaf'' {{IPA|[ˈliːf]}} as opposed to the [[Velar consonant|velar]] alveolar "dark" {{IPA|[ɫ]}} in ''feel'' {{IPA|[ˈfiːɫ]}} found in the U.S. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a [[Turkish language|Turkish]]-speaker, for whom {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/ɫ/}} are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.

These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in the next section.

==== Rules for English consonant allophones ====

[[Peter Ladefoged]], a renowned [[phonetics|phonetician]], clearly explains the [[consonant]] [[allophones]] of [[language|English]] in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant. 
These descriptive rules are as follows:<ref>Ladefoged, Peter (2001). A Course in Phonetics (4th ed.). Orlando: Harcourt. {{ISBN|0-15-507319-2}}. p. 56-60.</ref>
# Consonants are longer when they come at the end of a phrase. This can be easily tested by recording a speaker saying a sound like "bib", then comparing the forward and backward playback of the recording. One will find that the backward playback does not sound like the forward playback because the production of what is expected to be the same sound is not identical.
# [[Voicelessness|Voiceless]] [[stop consonant|stops]] {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} are [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] when they come at the beginning of a syllable, such as in words like "pip, test, kick" {{IPA|[pʰɪp, tʰɛst, kʰɪk]}}. We can compare this with voiceless stops that are not [[syllable]] initial like "stop" [stɑp]. The {{IPA|/t/}} voiceless stop follows the {{IPA|/s/}} (fricative) here.
# [[voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] [[obstruents]], which include stops and [[fricative consonant|fricatives]], such as {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ/}}, that come at the end of an utterance like {{IPA|/v/}} in "improve" or before a voiceless sound like {{IPA|/d/}} in "add two") are only briefly voiced during the articulation.
# Voiced stops and [[Affricate consonant|affricates]] {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}} in fact occur as partially devoiced at the beginning of a syllable unless immediately preceded by a voiced sound, in which the voiced sound carries over.
# [[Approximant consonant|Approximants]] (in English, these include {{IPA|/w, r, j, l/}}) are partially devoiced when they occur after syllable-initial {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} like in "play, twin, cue" {{IPA|[pʰl̥eɪ, tʰw̥ɪn, kʰj̥u]}}.
# Voiceless stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} are not aspirated when following after a syllable initial fricative, such as in the words "spew, stew, skew."
# Voiceless stops and affricates {{IPA|/p, t, k, tʃ/}} are longer than their voiced counterparts {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}} when situated at the end of a syllable. Try comparing "cap" to "cab" or "back" to "bag".
# When a stop comes before another stop, the explosion of air only follows after the second stop, illustrated in words like "apt" {{IPA|[æp̚t]}} and "rubbed" {{IPA|[rʌb̚d]}}.
# Many English accents produce a [[glottal stop]] in syllables that end with voiceless stops. Some examples include pronunciations of "tip, pit, kick" {{IPA|[tʰɪʔp, pʰɪʔt, kʰɪʔk]}}.
# Some accents of English use a glottal stop in place of a {{IPA|/t/}} when it comes before an alveolar nasal in the same word (as opposed to in the next word), such as in the word "beaten" {{IPA|[ˈbiːʔn̩]}}.
# Nasals become syllabic, or their own syllable, only when immediately following an obstruent (as opposed to just any consonant), such as in the words "leaden, chasm" {{IPA|[ˈlɛdn̩, ˈkæzm̩]}}. Take in comparison "kiln, film"; in most accents of English, the nasals are not syllabic.
# The lateral {{IPA|/l/}}, however, is syllabic at the end of the word when immediately following any consonant, like in "paddle, whistle" {{IPA|[ˈpʰædl̩, ˈwɪsl̩]}}.
## When considering {{IPA|/r, l/}} as [[Liquid consonant|liquids]], {{IPA|/r/}} is included in this rule as well as present in the words "sabre, razor, hammer, tailor" {{IPA|[ˈseɪbɹ̩, ˈreɪzɹ̩, ˈhæmɹ̩, ˈtʰeɪlɹ̩]}}.
# [[voiceless dental and alveolar stops|Alveolar stops]] become [[Dental and alveolar taps and flaps|voiced taps]] when they occur between two vowels, as long as the second vowel is [[Stress (linguistics)|unstressed]]. Take for instance mainly American English pronunciations like "fatty, data, daddy, many" {{IPA|[ˈfæɾi, ˈdeɪɾə, ˈdæɾi, ˈmɛɾ̃i]}}.
## When an [[Dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|alveolar nasal]] is followed by a stop, the {{IPA|/t/}} is lost and a nasal tap occurs, causing "winter" to sound just like "winner" or "panting" to sound just like "panning". In this case, both alveolar stops and alveolar nasal plus stop sequences become voiced taps after two vowels when the second vowel is unstressed. This can vary among speakers, where the rule does not apply to certain words or when speaking at a slower pace.
# All alveolar consonants assimilate to [[Dental consonant|dentals]] when occurring before a dental. Take the words "eighth, tenth, wealth". This also applies across word boundaries, for example "at this" {{IPA|[ˈæt̪ ðɪs]}}.
# Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants. Some examples include "most people" (can be written either as {{IPA|[ˈmoʊs ˈpʰipl̩]}} or {{IPA|[ˈmoʊst ˈpʰipl̩]}} with the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], where the {{IPA|[t]}} is inaudible, and "sand paper, grand master", where the {{IPA|[d]}} is inaudible.
# A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant, such as in "big game" or "top post".
# A [[Homorganic consonant|homorganic]] voiceless stop may be inserted after a [[Nasal consonant|nasal]] before a voiceless fricative followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word. For example, a [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]] voiceless plosive {{IPA|/p/}} can be detected in the word "something" {{IPA|[ˈsʌmpθɪŋ]}} even though it is orthographically not indicated. This is known as [[epenthesis]]. However, the following vowel must be unstressed.
# Velar stops {{IPA|/k, ɡ/}} become more [[Front and back|front]] when the following vowel sound in the same syllable becomes more front. Compare for instance "cap" {{IPA|[kʰæp]}} vs. "key" {{IPA|[kʲi]}} and "gap" {{IPA|[ɡæp]}} vs. "geese" {{IPA|[ɡʲiːs]}}.
# The lateral {{IPA|/l/}} is [[Velarization|velarized]] at the end of a word when it comes after a vowel as well as before a consonant. Compare for example "life" {{IPA|[laɪf]}} vs. "file" {{IPA|[faɪɫ]}} or "feeling" {{IPA|[fiːlɪŋ]}} vs. "feel" {{IPA|[fiːɫ]}}.<ref>Poppy Blake, ''[https://slideplayer.com/slide/4555609/ a Course in Phonetics Ladefoged & Johnson Chapter 3]''</ref>

===Other languages===
There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are [[Hawaiian language#Consonants|Hawaiian]] and [[Pirahã language|Pirahã]]. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):
* Consonant allophones
**[[Consonant voicing and devoicing#Final devoicing|Final devoicing]], particularly [[final-obstruent devoicing]]: [[Arapaho language#Allophony|Arapaho]], [[Consonant voicing and devoicing#English|English]], [[Nahuatl#Allophony|Nahuatl]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and many others
** [[Consonant voicing and devoicing#Initial voicing|Voicing of initial consonant]] 
** [[Consonant voicing and devoicing#Voicing assimilation|Anticipatory assimilation]]
** Aspiration changes: [[Algonquin language#Aspiration and allophony|Algonquin]] <!-- also Arapaho_language#Allophony, Xavante_language#Allophony, ... -->
** Frication between vowels: [[Dahalo language#Allophony|Dahalo]]
** [[Lenition]]: [[Manx language#Consonants|Manx]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]] 
** Voicing of clicks: [[Dahalo language#Allophony|Dahalo]]
<!-- from here on sorted alphabetically -->
** Allophones for {{IPA|/b/}}: [[Arapaho language#Allophony|Arapaho]], [[Xavante language#Allophony|Xavante]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/d/}}: [[Xavante language#Allophony|Xavante]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/f/}}: [[Bengali phonology|Bengali]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/j/}}: [[Xavante language#Allophony|Xavante]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/k/}}: [[Manam language#Allophony|Manam]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/pʰ/}}: [[Garhwali language#Allophony|Garhwali]]
**{{IPA|[ɡ]}} and {{IPAblink|q}} as allophones: a number of [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]]
**{{IPA|[l]}} and {{IPA|[n]}} as allophones: Some dialects of [[Hawaiian language#Consonants|Hawaiian]], and some of [[Mandarin dialects|Mandarin]] (e.g. [[Southwestern Mandarin#Syllable|Southwestern]] and [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin#Phonology|Lower Yangtze]])
** Allophones for {{IPA|/n/}}
*** {{IPA|[ŋ]}}: [[Finnish language#Phonology|Finnish]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and many more.
*** wide range of variation in [[Japanese phonology#The moraic nasal /ɴ/|Japanese]] (as [[archiphoneme]] /N/)
** Allophones for {{IPA|/r/}}: [[Bengali phonology|Bengali]], [[Xavante language#Allophony|Xavante]]
** Allophones for {{IPAslink|ɽ}}: [[Bengali phonology|Bengali]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/s/}}: [[Bengali phonology|Bengali]], [[Taos phonology#Consonant phonetics and allophony|Taos]]
** {{IPAblink|t}} and {{IPAblink|k}} as allophones: [[Hawaiian language#Consonants|Hawaiian]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/w/}}:
*** {{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}: [[Hindustani phonology#Allophony of %5Bv%5D and %5Bw%5D|Hindustani]], [[Hawaiian language#Consonants|Hawaiian]]
*** fricative {{IPAblink|β}} before unrounded vowels: [[O'odham language#Allophony and distribution|O'odham]]
** Allophones for {{IPAslink|z}}: [[Bengali phonology|Bengali]]
* Vowel allophones
** {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} in closed final syllables in [[Malay language|Malay]]{{specify|reason=Malay has so many dialects|date=October 2024}} and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], while {{IPA|[ɪ]}} and {{IPA|[ʊ]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]].
** {{IPA|[<nowiki/>[[Close central rounded vowel|ʉ]], [[Near-close back rounded vowel|ʊ]], [[o̞]], [[Close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]]}} as allophones for short {{IPA|/u/}}, and {{IPA|[<nowiki/>[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]], [[Near-close front unrounded vowel|ɪ]], e̞, [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]]}} as allophones for short {{IPA|/i/}} in various [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]] (long {{IPA|/uː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}} are separate phonemes in most Arabic dialects).
** [[Polish phonology#Allophones|Polish]]
** [[Russian phonology#Allophony|Russian]]
** Allophones for {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}: [[Nuxálk language#Allophony|Nuxálk]]
* Vowel/consonant allophones
** Vowels become [[Glide consonant|glides]] in diphthongs: [[Manam language#Allophony|Manam]]
<!-- The above list has been created from the results of https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ASearch&profile=advanced&search=allophony&fulltext=Search&ns0=1&ns9=1&ns11=1&profile=advanced. Not included yet: [[Quenya#Morphophonemics_and_allophony]], . Also the following has relevance here: [[Free variation]]. -->

== Representing a phoneme with an allophone ==
Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct [[phonetic transcription]]. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple [[broad transcription]] is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.

However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the "elsewhere condition" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The "elsewhere" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.

For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the "elsewhere" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.

In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.

An alternative, which is commonly used for [[archiphoneme]]s, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for [m], [n], [ŋ].

In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as [[dingbat]]s, to avoid privileging any particular allophone.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=Mark |title=Marshallese phonology, the phonetics-phonology interface and historical linguistics |journal=The Linguistic Review |date=2000 |volume=17 |issue=2–4 |pages=241–258|doi=10.1515/tlir.2000.17.2-4.241 |s2cid=143601901 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Allo-]]
*[[Allophonic rule]]
*[[Allomorph]]
*[[Alternation (linguistics)]]
*[[Diaphoneme]]
*[[List of phonetics topics]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110212012436/http://www.elloandfriends.uni-osnabrueck.de/wikis/1/show?n=PhoneticsandPhonology.PhonemesAndAllophones Phonemes and allophones]

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[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Phonology]]