Editing Amazon parrot

{{Short description|Genus of birds}}
{{Redirect|Amazona|the Roxy Music song|Amazona (song)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Amazon parrots
| image = Amazona parrots collage.jpg
| image_caption = Collage of four amazon parrots (in clockwise: [[Blue-fronted parrot]], [[Red-lored parrot]], [[Lilac-crowned parrot]] and [[White-fronted parrot]]).
| taxon = Amazona
| authority = [[René Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1830
| type_species = ''[[Mealy amazon|Psittacus farinosus]]''<ref name=HM4>{{cite web |url= https://www.aviansystematics.org/4th-edition-checklist?viewfamilies=67 |title= Psittacidae |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= aviansystematics.org |publisher= The Trust for Avian Systematics |access-date= 2023-07-24}}</ref>
| type_species_authority = Boddaert, 1783
| diversity_ref = <ref>[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=177782 ITIS standard report page: Amazona] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017082100/http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=177782 |date=2004-10-17 }} record last updated 1998 (URL accessed May 22, 2006)</ref>
| diversity_link = List of amazon parrots
| diversity = c. 30 species
}}

'''Amazon parrots''' are [[parrot]]s in the [[genus]] '''''Amazona'''''. They are medium-sized, short-tailed parrots native to the [[Americas]], with their range extending from [[South America]] to [[Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]]. ''Amazona'' is one of the 92 genera of parrots that make up the [[order (biology)|order]] Psittaciformes and is in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Psittacidae]], one of three families of [[true parrots]]. It contains about thirty species. Most amazons are predominantly green, with accenting colors that depend on the species, and they can be quite vivid. They feed primarily on seeds, [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]], and [[fruit]]s, supplemented by leafy matter.

Many amazons have the ability to mimic human speech and other sounds. Partly because of this, they are popular as [[pet]]s or [[companion parrot]]s, and a small industry has developed in breeding parrots in captivity for this market. This popularity has led to many parrots being taken from the wild to the extent that some species have become threatened. The [[United States]] and the [[European Union]] have made the capture of wild parrots for the [[pet trade]] illegal in an attempt to help protect wild populations. [[Feral parrot|Feral]] populations of amazons can be found in different parts of the world, including in [[South Africa]], [[Europe]], and major cities in the Americas.

== Taxonomy ==
{{See also|List of amazon parrots}}

{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = ChrysotisChloronotaKeulemans.jpg
| caption1 = Festive amazon (Amazona festiva), color illustration by Keulemans, 1891
| image2 = Jamaican parrot.jpg
| total_width = 180
| caption2 = Color drawing of an unidentified Jamaican parrot, possibly belonging to this genus, 1764
}}

The genus ''Amazona'' was introduced by the French naturalist [[René Lesson]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite book | last=Lesson | first=René | author-link=René Lesson | year=1831 | title=Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique | volume=1 | language=fr | place=Paris | publisher=F.G. Levrault | page=189 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35997173 | access-date=2019-08-12 | archive-date=2019-08-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812094528/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35997173 | url-status=live }}</ref> The [[type species]] was subsequently designated as the [[mealy amazon]] (''Amazona farinosa'') by the Italian zoologist [[Tommaso Salvadori]] in 1891.<ref>{{cite book | last=Salvadori | first=Tommaso | author-link=Tommaso Salvadori | year=1891 | title=Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum | volume=20 | location=London | publisher=British Museum | page=268 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8382573 | access-date=2019-08-12 | archive-date=2019-08-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812094038/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8382573 | url-status=live }}</ref> The genus name is a Latinized version of the name ''Amazone'' given to them in the 18th century by the [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Comte de Buffon]], who believed they were native to [[Amazon rainforest|Amazonian jungles]].<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | page = [https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n44 44] | url=https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling}}</ref>

''Amazona'' contains about thirty species of parrots, such as the [[Cuban amazon]], [[festive amazon]], and [[red-necked amazon]]. The [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of the [[yellow-crowned amazon]] (''Amazona ochrocephala'' complex) is disputed, with some authorities only listing a single species (''A. ochrocephala''), while others split it into as many as three species (''A. ochrocephala'', ''A. auropalliata'' and ''A. oratrix''). The split is primarily based on differences related to extension of yellow to the plumage and the colour of bill and legs. [[Phylogenetic]] analyses of [[mtDNA]] do not support the traditional split.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eberhard|first1=J.|last2=Bermingham|first2=E.|year=2004|title=Phylogeny and biogeography of the ''Amazona ochrocephala'' (Aves: Psittacidae) complex|journal=The Auk|volume=121|issue=2|pages=318–332|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0318:PABOTA]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=21874362 |doi-access=}}</ref>

A 2017 study published by ornithologists Tony Silva, Antonio Guzmán, Adam D. Urantówka and Paweł Mackiewicz proposed a new species from the Yucatán Peninsula area in Mexico called the blue-winged amazon (''[[Amazona gomezgarzai]]'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Tony |last2=Guzmán |first2=Antonio |last3=Urantówka |first3=Adam D |last4=Mackiewicz |first4=Paweł |title=A new parrot taxon from the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico—its position within genus Amazona based on morphology and molecular phylogeny |journal=PeerJ |date=June 27, 2017 |volume=4420 |issue=1 |pages=139–147 |doi=10.7717/peerj.3475|pmid=28674651 |pmc=5490482 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, subsequent studies question its validity, indicating that these organisms possibly had an artificial hybrid origin.<ref>{{cite journal | title=A new species of Mexican parrot? Reasonable doubt on the status of ''Amazona gomezgarzai'' (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae)|first1=Patricia|last1=Escalante|first2=Abigail Eunice|last2=Arteaga-Rojas|first3=Mauricio|last3=Gutiérrez-Sánchez-Rüed| year=2018 | journal=Zootaxa|volume=4420|issue=1|pages=139–147| doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4420.1.9|pmid=30313559}}</ref>

The [[yellow-faced parrot]] (''Alipiopsitta xanthops'') was traditionally placed within this genus, but recent research has shown that it is more closely related to the [[short-tailed parrot]] and species in the genus ''[[Pionus]]'', resulting in it being transferred to the [[monotypic]] genus ''Alipiopsitta''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Duarte|first1=J.M.B.|last2=Caparroz|first2=R.|year=1995|title=Cytotaxonomic analysis of Brazilian species of the genus ''Amazona'' (Psittacidae, Aves) and confirmation of the genus ''Salvatoria'' (Ribeiro, 1920)|journal=Brazilian Journal of Genetics|volume=18|pages=623–628|hdl-access=free|hdl=11449/34543}}</ref><ref name=AmazonePhylogeny>{{ cite journal | last1=Russello | first1=M.A. | last2=Amato | first2=G. | year=2004 | title=A molecular phylogeny of ''Amazona'': implications for Neotropical parrot biogeography, taxonomy, and conservation | journal= Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=30 | issue=2 | pages=421–437 | doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00192-1| pmid=14715233 | bibcode=2004MolPE..30..421R }}</ref>

===Extinct hypothetical species===
Populations of amazon parrots that lived on the Caribbean islands of [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]] are now extinct. It is not known if they were distinct species or subspecies, or if they originated from parrots introduced to the islands by humans, so they are regarded as [[hypothetical extinct species]]. No evidence of them remains, and their taxonomy may never be established.  Populations of several [[parrot]] species were described mainly in the unscientific writings of early travelers, and subsequently scientifically described by several naturalists (to have their names linked to the species that they were proposing) mainly in the 20th century, with no more evidence than the earlier observations and without specimens.<ref name = Fuller1987>{{cite book |title = Extinct Birds |pages = 131 |first = Errol |last = Fuller | year = 1987| publisher = Penguin Books (England) |isbn = 0-670-81787-2}}</ref> An illustration of a specimen termed "[[George Edwards (naturalist)|George Edwards]]' parrot" has sometimes been considered a possibly distinct, extinct species, but it may also have been a yellow-billed or Cuban amazon with aberrant colouration.<ref name="Aberrant">{{Cite journal|last1=Hume |first1=J. P. |last2=van Grouw |first2= H. | pages = 168–193 |year= 2014 |title= Colour aberrations in extinct and endangered birds |journal= Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |volume= 134 }}</ref>
* [[Martinique amazon]], ''Amazona martinica.'' [[Austin Hobart Clark|A.H. Clark]], 1905.<ref name = Fuller1987/>
* [[Guadeloupe amazon]], ''Amazona violacea''. Originally called ''Psittacus violaceus'' by [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|J.F. Gmelin]] in 1789.<ref name = Fuller1987/>

== Description ==
Most amazon parrots are predominantly green, with contrasting colors on parts of the body such as the crown, face and flight feathers; these colours vary by species.<ref name="Teitler 1989">{{cite book|last=Teitler|first=Risa|title=Taming and Training Amazon Parrots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mOlbr37ZxMC|year=1989|publisher=T.F.H. Publications|isbn=978-0-86622-952-4|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720061627/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mOlbr37ZxMC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|8}} They are medium- to large-sized parrots, measuring between {{Convert|23–45|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=4}} long, and have short, rounded tails and wings. They are heavy-billed, and have a distinct notch on the upper mandible and a prominent naked [[cere]]<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc = 4019560|year = 2014|last1 = Urantówka|first1 = A. D.|last2 = MacKiewicz|first2 = P.|last3 = Strzała|first3 = T.|title = Phylogeny of Amazona barbadensis and the Yellow-Headed Amazon Complex (Aves: Psittacidae): A New Look at South American Parrot Evolution|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 9|issue = 5|pages = e97228|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0097228|pmid = 24823658|bibcode = 2014PLoSO...997228U|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ottens-Wainright|first1=Patricia|last2=Halanych|first2=Kenneth M.|last3=Eberhard|first3=Jessica R.|last4=Burke|first4=Rachel I.|last5=Wiley|first5=James W.|last6=Gnam|first6=Rosemarie S.|last7=Aqualera|first7=Xiomara Gálvez|date=2004|title=Independent geographic origins of the genus Amazona in the West Indies|url=https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/384|journal=Journal of Caribbean Ornithology|language=en|volume=17|pages=23–49|issn=1544-4953|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716000510/https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/384|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|27}} with [[seta]]e on it.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schmidt|first1=Robert E.|last2=Reavill|first2=Drury R.|last3=Phalen|first3=David N.|title=Pathology of Pet and Aviary Birds|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-o0lCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|date=6 July 2015|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-118-82811-3|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725145034/https://books.google.com/books?id=-o0lCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|21}} Male and female amazon parrots are roughly the same size, though males can be larger at times<ref name=gerholdt/>{{rp|6}} - most amazon parrots do not show sexual dimorphism, exceptions being the [[white-fronted amazon]],<ref name="worldparrottrust1">{{cite web |title=WHITE-FRONTED AMAZON (Amazona albifrons) |url=https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/white-fronted-amazon |publisher=World Parrot Trust |access-date=27 July 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609023252/https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/white-fronted-amazon/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Yucatan amazon]]<ref name="worldparrottrust2">{{cite web |title=YELLOW-LORED AMAZON (Amazona xantholora) |url=https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/yellow-lored-amazon |publisher=World Parrot Trust |access-date=27 July 2021 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910010426/https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/yellow-lored-amazon |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[turquoise-fronted amazon]], the latter species being sexually dimorphic when viewed in the ultraviolet spectrum, invisible to humans.<ref name="santos">{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Susana I. C. O. |last2=Elward |first2=Brian |last3=Lumeij |first3=Johannes T. |title=Sexual Dichromatism in the Blue-Fronted Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva) Revealed by Multiple-Angle Spectrometry |year=2006 |issue=1 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40236514 |journal=Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery |volume=20 |access-date=27 July 2021 |pages=8–14 |doi=10.1647/1082-6742(2006)20[8:SDITBA]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=40236514 |s2cid=17124101 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208194345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40236514 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> They can weigh from 190g to more than 565g.<ref name=gerholdt/>{{rp|6}} The average body temperature of an amazon parrot is 41.8 degrees Celsius, or 107.1 degrees Fahrenheit. Their heart rates range from 340 to 600 beats per minute, with 15-45 breaths per minute.<ref name=lafeber2/>

==Distribution and habitat==
Amazon parrots are native to the [[Neotropics|Neotropical]] [[Americas]], ranging from [[South America]] to [[Mexico]], and the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Alderton|first=David|title=The Complete Book of Birds|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jL28QJY9KE0C|year=2003|publisher=Hermes House|isbn=978-1-84309-445-6|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716113216/https://books.google.com/books?id=jL28QJY9KE0C|url-status=live}}</ref> Outside of their native habitats, more than 14 species of amazon parrots have been observed. In [[Italy]], there are two reproductive populations of ''Amazona'', dating back to their introduction in 1991 to the city of [[Genoa]]. The birds are present in Germany, but their status is unclear. They are also found in Spain, where the most common parrot present is the turquoise-fronted amazon. [[Portugal]], [[California]] (where the birds were largely introduced during the 20th century), [[Puerto Rico]], [[South Africa]], and the [[Netherlands]] have also reported sightings of ''Amazona'' parrots. More than 12 species of amazon parrots can be found in the US state of [[Florida]], mostly around the city of [[Miami]]. Feral populations are also present in [[São Paulo]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Buenos Aires]], and [[Río Cuarto, Córdoba|Río Cuarto]] within South America.<ref name=mori>{{Cite journal|year=2017|last1=Mori|first1=E.|last2=Grandi|first2=G.|last3=Menchetti|first3=M.|last4=Tella|first4=J. L.|last5=Jackson|first5=Hazel A.|last6=Reino|first6=Luis|last7=van Kleunen|first7=André|last8=Figueira|first8=Rui|last9=Ancillotto|first9=Leonardo|title=Worldwide distribution of non–native Amazon parrots and temporal trends of their global trade|journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation|volume=40|issue=1|pages=49–62|url=https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ABC/article/view/328437|doi=10.32800/abc.2017.40.0049|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2020-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126022228/https://www.raco.cat/index.php/ABC/article/view/328437|url-status=live|hdl=10261/142842|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|52–56}}

Amazon parrots mostly inhabit forests such as [[scrub forests]], palm groves and [[rainforest]]s, but some prefer drier areas<ref name=gerholdt/>{{rp|12}} such as [[savanna]]s.<ref name=lafeber2>{{Cite web|last=Pollock|first=Christal|url=https://lafeber.com/vet/basic-information-sheet-for-the-amazon-parrot/|title=Basic Information Sheet: Amazon Parrot|access-date=2021-07-25|website=LafeberVet|date=28 September 2014 |archive-date=2021-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306051458/https://lafeber.com/vet/basic-information-sheet-for-the-amazon-parrot/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Vinaceous-breasted amazon]]s are thought to prefer [[parana pine]] trees, and have been shown to prefer forest fragments or isolated trees,<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2007|last1=Cockle|first1=Kristina|last2=Capuzzi|first2=Gabriel|last3=Bodrati|first3=Alejandro|last4=Clay|first4=Rob|last5=del Castillo|first5=Hugo|last6=Velázquez|first6=Myriam|last7=Areta|first7=Juan I.|last8=Fariña|first8=Nestor|last9=Fariña|first9=Rodrigo|title=Distribution, abundance, and conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (''Amazona vinacea'') in Argentina and Paraguay|volume=78|issue=1|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|pages=21–39|doi=10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00082.x|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00082.x|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725110703/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00082.x|url-status=live|hdl=11336/80780|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|21–22}} while [[Tucumán amazon]]s nest at higher elevations than other amazon parrots, mostly in ''[[Blepharocalyx]]'' trees, within the [[cloud-forest]].<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2012|last1=Rivera|first1=Luis|last2=Politi|first2=Natalia|last3=Bucher|first3=Enrique H.|title=Nesting habitat of the Tucuman Parrot ''Amazona tucumana'' in an old-growth cloud-forest of Argentina|volume=22|journal=Bird Conservation International|issue=4|pages=398–410|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/90C512E8EDF7BA6EA63941607E84B5E7/S0959270911000414a.pdf/nesting_habitat_of_the_tucuman_parrot_amazona_tucumana_in_an_oldgrowth_cloudforest_of_argentina.pdf?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_a714a3bdd6ed35da7e7096a9536e1f418c5b6456-1627210151-0-gqNtZGzNAw2jcnBszQj6|doi=10.1017/S0959270911000414|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725110703/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/90C512E8EDF7BA6EA63941607E84B5E7/S0959270911000414a.pdf/nesting_habitat_of_the_tucuman_parrot_amazona_tucumana_in_an_oldgrowth_cloudforest_of_argentina.pdf?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_a714a3bdd6ed35da7e7096a9536e1f418c5b6456-1627210151-0-gqNtZGzNAw2jcnBszQj6|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|398}} Yellow-headed amazons nest in the [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] of tall trees, mostly in ''[[Astronium graveolens]]'' and ''[[Enterolobium cyclocarpum]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Monterrubio-Rico|first1=Tiberio C.|last2=Álvarez-Jara|first2=Margarito|last3=Téllez-García|first3=Lorena|last4=Tena-Morelos|first4=Carlos|title=Nesting habitat characterization for ''Amazona oratrix'' (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae) in the Central Pacific, Mexico|journal=Revista de Biología Tropical|date=2014|volume=62|issue=3|pages=1053–1072|doi=10.15517/rbt.v62i3.12269|pmid=25412536|url=https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?pid=S0034-77442014000300020&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725110706/https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?pid=S0034-77442014000300020&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Behavior ==
===Breeding===
The exact breeding age of wild birds is not precisely known. For captive-bred birds, the average breeding age is around four years, with some larger groups like yellow-crowned amazons requiring six years. Captive birds as old as 30 years have laid eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://journals.tdl.org/watchbird/index.php/watchbird/article/view/902|title = Common Breeding Problems in Amazon Parrots|journal = Afa Watchbird|year = 1995|volume = 22|issue = 3|pages = 30–31|last1 = Jordan|first1 = Rick|access-date = 2021-07-16|archive-date = 2021-07-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210716014856/https://journals.tdl.org/watchbird/index.php/watchbird/article/view/902|url-status = live}}</ref> Amazon parrots average 5 weeks for nest initiation, with most successful nestings averaging 2.2 [[Fledgling (birds)|fledglings]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5bfa/cb286dd5d41fbe304804126d6edc2dff963f.pdf|s2cid=3948646|doi=10.5751/ACE-01071-120206|title=Reproductive parameters of the Turquoise-fronted Parrot (Amazona aestiva) in the dry Chaco forest|year=2017|last1=Berkunsky|first1=Igor|last2=Segura|first2=Luciano N.|last3=Ruggera|first3=Román A.|last4=Faegre|first4=Sarah I. K.|last5=Trofino-Falasco|first5=Clara|last6=López|first6=Fernando G.|last7=Velasco|first7=Melina A.|last8=Kacoliris|first8=Federico P.|last9=Aramburú|first9=Rosana M.|last10=Reboreda|first10=Juan C.|journal=Avian Conservation and Ecology|volume=12|issue=2|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716014810/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5bfa/cb286dd5d41fbe304804126d6edc2dff963f.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Amazon parrots mostly breed during late winter and spring, as they are [[seasonal breeder]]s.<ref name="mitchell">{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMTUKwzPEvwC&pg=PA255|title=Manual of Exotic Pet Practice|last2=Tully Jr.|first2=Thomas N.|date=4 March 2008|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4160-0119-5|access-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720061558/https://books.google.com/books?id=JMTUKwzPEvwC&pg=PA255|archive-date=20 July 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|255}} This may happen due to seasonal food availability or a lower chance of flooding, as the period is generally dry. West Indian amazon parrots tend to breed earlier than Mexican amazon parrots, with Mexican amazon parrots having their peak at March to April while West Indian amazon parrots peak in March.<ref name=luescher/>{{rp|16}}

Captive birds are likelier to be less fertile. A variety of hypotheses to explain the phenomenon have been proposed - Low (1995) suggests that this is because amazon parrots have shorter breeding seasons, while Hagen (1994) suggests that this is because male and female parrots may not be ready for breeding at the same times.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.parrotbreeding.com.au/8navG625r2X3gY1/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/HBD-trial-paper-22.1.14.pdf|title=Captive Amazon parrots and their diet: a study on reproductive success|year=2014|last=Gowland|first=Daniel J.|journal=Queanbeyan: Priam Psittaculture Centre Research & Breedinge|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321102912/http://www.parrotbreeding.com.au/8navG625r2X3gY1/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/HBD-trial-paper-22.1.14.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|12}}

===Feeding===
Amazon parrots feed primarily on [[seed]]s, [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[fruit]]s, [[Berry (botany)|berries]], [[bud]]s, [[nectar]], and [[flower]]s, supplemented by leafy matter.<ref name=low>{{cite book|last=Low|first=Rosemary|title=Amazon Parrots: Aviculture, Trade and Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-pFAAAAYAAJ|year=2005|publisher=DONA|isbn=978-0-9531337-4-1|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716115900/https://books.google.com/books?id=S-pFAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|43}} Their beaks enable them to crack nut shells with ease, and they hold their food with a foot.<ref name=gerholdt>{{cite book|last=Gerholdt|first=James E.|title=Amazon Parrots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55VEsH47G3EC|year=1997|publisher=Abdo & Daughters|isbn=978-1-56239-587-2|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720061641/https://books.google.com/books?id=55VEsH47G3EC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|18}} In captivity, the birds enjoy vegetables such as squash, boiled potato, peas, beans, and carrots. Mainland amazon parrots forage and then feed their young twice a day (usually one hour after sunrise and one and a half hours before sunset), while West Indian amazon parrots do so 4-5 times. Hypotheses proposed for why this is include the nutritional value of food in the region as well as temperature stress.<ref name=luescher/>{{rp|19}} During the downtime before foraging expeditions in the afternoon, amazon parrots spend their time preening themselves and their mates.<ref>{{cite book|title=Companion Parrot Quarterly, Issue 71|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1NWAAAAYAAJ|year=2007|publisher=PBIC, Incorporated|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725111845/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1NWAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|22}}

===Communication and sociality===
Amazon parrots mostly communicate vocally.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meehan|first=Cheryl Lynne|title=Environmental enrichment and behavioral development of orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Bcs2vcstWUC|year=2002|publisher=University of California, Davis|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716164256/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Bcs2vcstWUC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|150}} Species such as [[orange-winged amazon]]s have nine different recorded vocalizations used in different situations. However, patterns of gestural communication have been observed with the birds, thought to be used to avoid predators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moura|first1=L. N.|last2=Silva|first2=M. L.|last3=Garotti|first3=M. M. F.|last4=Rodrigues|first4=A. L. F.|last5=Santos|first5=A. C.|last6=Ribeiro|first6=I. F.|title=Gestural communication in a new world parrot|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=105|year=2014|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2014.03.003|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2014.03.003|pages=46–48|pmid=24631994|s2cid=37064930|access-date=2021-07-21|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729154623/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635714000680?via%3Dihub|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In general, amazon parrots are very social birds in their foraging, roosting, and nesting. Most amazon parrots travel in large groups and have clumped nesting, but the four species in the [[Lesser Antilles]] are less social. Theories for why this is include the lack of predation risk.<ref name=luescher/>{{rp|15}} In captivity, amazon parrots are known for their [[Talking bird|ability to talk]]- learning to communicate by mimicking speech and other sounds of human origin. They also appear to have an affinity for human music and singing.<ref name="lafeber" />

Extensive studies of vocal behavior in wild [[yellow-naped amazon]]s show the presence of vocal dialects,<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=3232001|year=2012|last1=Wright|first1=T. F.|title=Regional dialects in the contact call of a parrot.|journal=Proc R Soc Lond B|volume=263|issue=1|pages=867–872|doi=10.1098/rspb.1996.0128|pmid=22162899}}</ref> in which the repertoire of calls that parrots vocalize change at discrete geographic boundaries, similar to how humans have different languages or dialects. Dialects are stable over long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=3232001|year=2008|last1=Wright|first1=T. F.|last2=Salinas-Melgoza|first2=A.|last3=Dahlin|first3=C.R.|title=Stability and change in vocal dialects of the yellow-naped amazon.|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=144|issue=1|pages=207–228|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.03.025|pmid=22162899}}</ref> and are meaningful to the parrots; they are less responsive to calls that are not their own dialect.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=3232001|year=2001|last1=Wright|first1=T. F.|last2=Dorin|first2=M.|title=Pair duets in the yellow-naped amazon (Psittaciformes: Amazona auropalliata): Response to playbacks of different dialects.|journal=Ethology|volume=107|issue=1|pages=111–124|doi=10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.00632.x|pmid=22162899|bibcode=2001Ethol.107..111W }}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" widths="180" heights="180">
File:Red-lored parrot (Amazona autumnalis salvini) feeding.jpg|''[[Red-lored parrot|A. autumnalis salvini]]'' (red-lored parrot) feeding
File:Cuban Amazon (Amazona leucocephala)4-4c.jpg|''[[Cuban parrot|A. leucocephala]]'' (Cuban parrot) feeding using its foot
File:Amazona auropalliata -captive-8a.jpg|Two captive [[Yellow-naped parrot|''A. auropalliata'']] (Yellow-naped parrots) feeding
File:Red-lored parrots (Amazona autumnalis salvini) in flight.jpg|Two ''[[Red-lored parrot|A. autumnalis salvini]]'' (red-lored parrots) flying together
</gallery>

== Conservation status ==
As of June 2020, 58% (18 out of 31) of species were listed by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) as threatened or [[extinct in the wild]]. The most common threats are habitat loss, persecution, the pet trade,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1017/S0959270920000222|title = Conservation status of the recently described Ecuadorian Amazon parrot Amazona lilacina|year = 2020|last1 = Biddle|first1 = Rebecca|last2 = Solis Ponce|first2 = Ivette|last3 = Cun|first3 = Paul|last4 = Tollington|first4 = Simon|last5 = Jones|first5 = Martin|last6 = Marsden|first6 = Stuart|last7 = Devenish|first7 = Christian|last8 = Horstman|first8 = Eric|last9 = Berg|first9 = Karl|last10 = Pilgrim|first10 = Mark|journal = Bird Conservation International|volume = 30|issue = 4|pages = 586–598|s2cid = 225833310|doi-access = free}}</ref> and the introduction of other species.<ref name=luescher>{{cite book|last=Luescher|first=Andrew|title=Manual of Parrot Behavior|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/32037289/Manual_of_Parrot_Behavior.pdf#page=20|date=12 June 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-8138-2749-0}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>{{rp|14}} The [[Puerto Rican amazon]] is critically endangered. 15 species are on Appendix 1 of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]], while 16 are on Appendix 2.<ref name=AmazonePhylogeny/>{{rp|421}} In the case of illegal smuggling of amazon parrots, some smugglers bleach the heads of green-headed parrots to make them look yellow and sell them off as young amazon parrots, which can cause [[dermatitis]]. The [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] and the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] sometimes confiscate and quarantine parrots for [[Newcastle disease]] and then auction them off.<ref name=mitchell/>{{rp|255}}

The Puerto Rican parrot in particular, as a critically endangered species, has seen considerable conservation efforts, including but not limited to changes in land management, legal protection, research, and increasing nesting success.<ref>{{cite book|author=Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Team|title=Recovery Plan for the Puerto Rican Parrot, Amazona Vittata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMvwAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA61|year=1987|publisher=The Region|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725113105/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMvwAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA61|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|18–21}} However, these efforts were significantly hindered by natural events such as [[Hurricane Hugo]], which affected the [[Luquillo forest]] in which most Puerto Rican parrots were living.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Soulé|first1=Michael E.|last2=Terborgh|first2=John|title=Continental Conservation: Scientific Foundations of Regional Reserve Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fEWaQHM6cYC&pg=PA70|year=1999|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-61091-388-1|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725113105/https://books.google.com/books?id=9fEWaQHM6cYC&pg=PA70|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|70}}

Within the rest of the West Indies, the four species of amazon parrots in the Lesser Antilles have seen successful attempts at increasing their population. In the Greater Antilles, the population of amazon parrots has been stable. The [[Cuban amazon]] has seen greatly successful conservation efforts and as a result has experienced a large increase in its population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wiley|first1=James W.|last2=Gnam|first2=Rosemarie S.|last3=Koenig|first3=Susan E.|last4=Dornelly|first4=Alwin|last5=Gálvez|first5=Xiomara|last6=Bradley|first6=Patricia E.|last7=White|first7=Thomas|last8=Zamore|first8=Michael|last9=Reillo|first9=Paul R.|last10=Anthony|first10=Donald|title=Status and conservation of the family Psittacidae in the West Indies|url=https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/396|year=2004|journal=Journal of Caribbean Ornithology|volume=17|pages=94–154|access-date=2021-07-25|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725142439/https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/396|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|94}}

==Aviculture==
[[File:Amazona pretrei -bird cage-8c.jpg|thumb|247x247px|''[[Red-spectacled amazon|A. pretrei]]'' in a cage.]]
Low (2005) describes adaptability and joyfulness as the special positive attributes of the genus from an avicultural perspective.<ref name=low/>{{rp|11}} The [[yellow-headed amazon]], yellow-naped amazon, and [[turquoise-fronted amazon]] are some of the species which are commonly kept as pets.<ref name=mitchell/>{{rp|255}}  They can live for 30 to 50 years,<ref name="Teitler 1989"/>{{rp|8}} with one report of a yellow-crowned amazon living for 56 years in captivity.<ref name="anage">{{cite web |title=AnAge entry for Amazona ochrocephala |url=https://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Amazona_ochrocephala |website=The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720141325/https://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Amazona_ochrocephala |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some amazons can have hormonally-induced aggressiveness and attack their owners, which has led to owners seeking behavior modification for their parrots.<ref name=mitchell/>{{rp|255}} On the other hand, unlike many other amazon species, the [[lilacine amazon]] and [[mealy amazon]] are said to possess gentle, easy-going and affectionate temperaments.<ref name="beautyofbirds">{{cite web |title=Mealy Amazon Parrot |url=https://www.beautyofbirds.com/mealyparrots.html |website=Beauty of Birds |access-date=8 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="animalworld2">{{cite web |last1=Brough |first1=Clarice |last2=Galloway |first2=Cheryl |title=Mealy Amazon Mealy Parrot, Blue-crowned Mealy Amazon |url=https://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/amazons/mealyamazon.php |website=Animal World |access-date=8 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="Kalhagen">{{cite web |last1=Kalhagen |first1=Alyson |title=Mealy Amazon Parrot: Bird Species Profile |url=https://www.thesprucepets.com/mealy-amazon-parrots-390257 |website=The Spruce Pets |access-date=8 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="animalworld">{{cite web |last1=Brough |first1=Clarice |title=Lilacine Amazon Ecuadorian Red-lored Amazon |url=https://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/amazons/lilacineamazon.php |website=Animal World |access-date=25 July 2021 |archive-date=25 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725122440/https://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/amazons/lilacineamazon.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="abc">{{cite web |title=LILACINE AMAZON |url=https://abcbirds.org/bird/lilacine-amazon/ |website=American Bird Conservancy |access-date=25 July 2021 |archive-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515180208/https://abcbirds.org/bird/lilacine-amazon/ |url-status=live }}</ref> To maintain health and happiness, pet parrots require much more training than domesticated animals such as dogs or even cats. They require understanding, manipulative toys, and rewards for good pet-like behavior, or they can develop quite aggressive behaviors (particularly male birds), which can be clearly observed through the bird's body language - [[eye pinning|pinning the eyes]], flaring the tail, raising the head and neck feathers and engaging in a "macho strut". They have a strong, innate need to chew; thus, they require safe, destructible toys.<ref name=lafeber>{{Cite web|url=https://lafeber.com/pet-birds/species/amazon-parrot/|title=Amazon Parrot Personality, Food & Care|access-date=2021-07-15|archive-date=2021-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430061909/https://lafeber.com/pet-birds/species/amazon-parrot/|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the main problems amazon parrots face in captivity is obesity, which can be avoided with the correct diet and exercise.<ref name=mitchell/>{{rp|255}} Within captivity, it is recommended to feed amazon parrots a variety of food, mostly consisting of pelleted food. Seeds should never be used as a whole diet and should be used as part of a balanced diet, balanced with food such as fresh fruit (except [[avocado]], which is toxic to parrots) and vegetables, with nuts and seed provided only in moderation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/amazon-parrots-feeding |title=Amazon Parrots - Feeding |last1=Axelson |first1=Rick |last2=Hess |first2=Laurie |website=[[VCA Animal Hospitals]] |access-date=23 July 2021 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723140020/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/amazon-parrots-feeding |url-status=live }}</ref> Amazon parrots should also be given opportunities to forage for food instead of simply being given it, as they are motivated to forage even when an easier alternative is available.<ref name=speer>{{cite book|last=Speer|first=Brian|title=Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKY_CwAAQBAJ|date=4 December 2015|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4557-4671-2|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725112256/https://books.google.com/books?id=LKY_CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|184}}

Amazon parrots should be given a dark and quiet sleeping area. It is recommended to give the bird either downtime and naps or to keep them in total darkness for 12 hours so they can rest. Parrots also need to be bathed or sprayed with water once every week to allow for bathing behaviors.<ref name=speer/>{{rp|185}}

===Trade===
Amazon parrots are traded and exploited as pets.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nilsson|first=Greta|title=The Bird Business: A Study of the Commercial Cage Bird Trade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2pjAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Animal Welfare Institute|access-date=2021-07-16|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716113214/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2pjAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|69}} Archeological evidence shows that the parrot trade has existed in South America since pre-Columbian times, with mummified parrots (including amazon species) being found in the [[Atacama Desert]] region of [[Chile]].<ref name="messer">{{cite web |last1=Messer |first1=A'ndrea Elyse |title=Mummified parrots point to trade in the ancient Atacama desert |url=https://news.psu.edu/story/652392/2021/03/29/research/mummified-parrots-point-trade-ancient-atacama-desert |website=Penn State News |access-date=25 July 2021 |archive-date=25 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725124426/https://news.psu.edu/story/652392/2021/03/29/research/mummified-parrots-point-trade-ancient-atacama-desert |url-status=live }}</ref> The most traded species of amazons are blue-fronted amazons and yellow-crowned/yellow-headed amazons. A 1992 ban on wild bird trade by the US led to a sharp drop in the trade and a diversion of 66% of it to the European Union, and a further EU ban on the trade in 2005 led to another drop. Between 1980 and 2013, 372,988 amazon parrots were traded. Some illegal trade still occurs between Mexico and the United States.<ref name=mori/>{{rp|58}}<ref name=mitchell/>{{rp|255}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Caparroz, R. and J.F. Pacheco, 2006: A homonymy in Psittacidae a new name for Salvatoria Miranda-Ribeiro. Ararajuba: Rev. Brasileira de Ornitologia. V. 14, n 2, pp.&nbsp;91–93.

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Amazona}}

{{Amazon parrots}}
{{Psittacopasseres|Ps.|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Birds}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q456513}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Amazon parrot}}
[[Category:Amazon parrots| ]]
[[Category:Parrots]]
[[Category:Parrots of South America]]
[[Category:Birds of Central America]]
[[Category:Birds of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Neotropical realm]]
[[Category:Taxa named by René Lesson]]