Editing Antioch

{{Short description|Hellenistic city, modern Antakya, Turkey}}
{{About|the historical city in ancient Syria|the modern city|Antakya|the city in California|Antioch, California|other uses}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Antioch on the Orontes
| native_name = {{lang|grc|Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου}}<br />{{lang|la|Antiochia ad Orontem}}
| image = Antiochia su Oronte.PNG
| alt = 
| caption = Map of Antioch in Ancient and early Medieval times under Roman rule
| map_type = Turkey
| map_alt = 
| map_size = 270
| coordinates = {{coord|36|12|17|N|36|10|54|E|tupe:landmark_region:TR-31|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Antakya]], [[Hatay Province]], [[Turkey]]
| region = 
| type = Settlement
| part_of = 
| length = 
| width = 
| area = {{convert|15|km2|sqmi|frac=4|abbr=on}} <!-- find good source for this claim and discuss in article's text -->
| height = 
| builder = [[Seleucus I Nicator]]
| material = 
| built = 300&nbsp;BC
| abandoned = Insignificant by the end of the 15th century
| epochs = [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] to [[Middle Ages|medieval]]
| cultures = [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Hellenistic culture|Hellenistic]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Armenians|Armenian]], [[Syriacs|Syriac]], [[Arab people|Arab]], [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine]], [[Crusader states|Outremer]], [[Turkish people|Turkish]] <!-- please add the rest -->
| dependency_of = 
| occupants = 
| event = [[Roman–Persian Wars]], [[First Crusade]]
| excavations = 1932–1939
| archaeologists = 
| condition = Mostly buried
| ownership = 
| management = 
| public_access = 
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes = 
}}

'''Antioch on the Orontes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|t|i|.|ɒ|k}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου|Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou}}, {{IPA|el|anti.ó.kʰeː.a|pron}})<ref group=note>{{langx|grc-x-koine|Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ}} "Antioch on Daphne"; or {{lang|grc|Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη}} "Antioch the Great"; {{langx|la|Antiochia ad Orontem}}; {{langx|hy|Անտիոք|Antiokʽ}}; {{langx|syr|ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ|Anṭiyoḵyā}}; {{langx|he|אנטיוכיה|Anṭiyoḵyā}}; {{langx|ar|أنطاكية|Anṭākiya}}; {{langx|fa|انطاکیه|Antākya}}; {{langx|tr|[[Antakya]]}}.</ref> was a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic Greek]] city<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sacks|first1=David|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World |series=Facts on File Library of World History |publisher=Facts on File Inc|isbn=978-0816057221|page=32|first2=Oswyn|last2=Murray|editor-first=Lisa R.|editor-last=Brody|year=2005}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Rice |first=E.E. |url= |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-97334-2 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Nigel Guy |pages=592 |language=en |chapter=Political History 323–31 BC}}</ref> founded by [[Seleucus I Nicator]] in 300&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Antioch-modern-and-ancient-city-south-central-Turkey |title=Antioch modern and ancient city, south-central Turkey |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> One of the most important Greek cities of the [[Hellenistic period]],<ref name=":0" /> it served as the capital of the [[Seleucid Empire]] and later as regional capital to both the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]. During the [[Crusades]], Antioch served as the capital of the [[Principality of Antioch]], one of four [[Crusader states]] that were founded in the [[Levant]]. Its inhabitants were known as ''Antiochenes''. The remains of the ancient city of Antioch are mostly buried beneath alluvial deposits from the [[Orontes River]]. The modern city of [[Antakya]], in [[Hatay Province]] of [[Turkey]], lies in its place.

Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of [[Alexander the Great]]'s generals, as one of the tetrapoleis of [[Seleucis of Syria]]. Seleucus encouraged [[Greeks]] from all over the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to settle in the city.<ref name=":0" /> The city's location offered geographical, military, and economic benefits to its occupants; Antioch was heavily involved in the [[spice trade]] and lay within close reach of the [[Silk Road]] and the [[Royal Road]]. The city was the capital of the [[Seleucid Empire]] from 240&nbsp;BC until 63&nbsp;BC, when the Romans took control, making it the capital of the [[Roman Syria|province of Syria]] and later of [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele Syria]].  During the late Hellenistic and Roman [[Principate]] periods, Antioch's population may have reached a peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (most generally estimate between 200,000 and 250,000),<ref>Kloeg, Paul. "Antioch the Great: Population and Economy of Second-Century Antioch." Masters, Leiden University, 2013. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/21549.</ref> making the city the third largest in the Roman Empire after Rome and Alexandria and one of the most important cities in the [[eastern Mediterranean]]. From the early fourth century, Antioch was the seat of the ''[[comes]] Orientis'', head of the [[Diocese of the East]]. The Romans provided the city with walls that encompassed almost {{convert|1100|acre|ha|order=flip}}, of which one quarter was mountainous, leaving {{convert|750|acre|ha|abbr=on|order=flip}} – about one-fifth the area of Rome within the [[Aurelian Walls]].

The city was also the main center of [[Hellenistic Judaism]] at the end of the [[Second Temple period]]. As one of the cities of the [[pentarchy]], Antioch was called "the cradle of [[History of Christianity|Christianity]]" as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of [[early Christianity]].<ref>"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'', Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabib01cheyuoft online .pdf file]).</ref> The [[Christianity|Christian]] [[New Testament]] asserts that the name "[[Christian]]" first emerged in Antioch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/acts/11-26.htm|title=Acts 11:26 and when he found him, he brought him back to Antioch. So for a full year they met together with the church and taught large numbers of people. The disciples were first called Christians at Antioch |publisher=biblehub.com}}</ref> The city declined to relative insignificance during the [[Middle Ages]] due to warfare, repeated earthquakes, and a change in [[trade route]]s. The city still lends its name to the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]], one of the most important modern churches of the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean. The city also attracts [[Muslims|Muslim]] pilgrims who visit the [[Habib-i Nejjar Mosque]], which they believe to contain the tomb of [[Habib the Carpenter]], mentioned in [[surah]] [[Yā-Sīn]] of the [[Quran]].

==Geography==
Two routes from the [[Mediterranean Sea]], lying through the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] river gorge and the [[Belen Pass]], converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake, now called [[Lake Amik]], and are met there by:
#the road from the [[Amanian Gate]] (Baghche Pass) and western [[Commagene]], which descends the valley of the [[Karasu (Hatay)|Karasu]] to the [[Afrin River]];
#the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (now [[Samsat]]) and [[Apamea (Euphrates)|Apamea Zeugma]] (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the [[Queiq]]; and
#the road from the Euphratean ford at [[Thapsacus]], which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. A single route proceeds south in the Orontes valley.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=130}}
[[File:SUPPILULIUMA.jpg|thumbnail|right|King [[Suppiluliuma (Pattin)|Šuppiluliuma]] of [[Pattin]], {{circa|860 BC}} in [[Hatay Archaeology Museum]]]]
[[File:Antakya_Archaeological_Museum_7574.jpg|thumb|right|An artifact from the middle and late Bronze Age, 2000–1200 BC in [[Hatay Archaeology Museum]]]]

== Prehistory ==
{{Anchor|History}}
A settlement called "Meroe" pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of the goddess [[Anat]], called by Herodotus the "[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] [[Artemis]]", was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of [[Silpium|Mount Silpius]] named ''Io'', or ''Iopolis''. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (''e.g.'' [[Libanius]]) eager to affiliate themselves to the Attic [[Ionians]]—an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks ([[Javan]]). [[John Malalas]] also mentions an archaic village, [[Bottia]], in the plain by the river.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=130}}

== Foundation by Seleucus I ==
[[Alexander the Great]] is said to have camped on the site of Antioch and dedicated an altar to [[Zeus]] Bottiaeus; it lay in the northwest of the future city.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=130}} This account is found only in the writings of [[Libanius]], a fourth-century orator from Antioch,<ref>{{cite book|title=Antioch as a Centre of Hellenic Culture as Observed by Libanius|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fscXhWwDbusC&pg=PA23 |year=2000|place=Liverpool|publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]]|others=Translated with an introduction by A.F. Norman|author=Libanius|isbn=978-0-85323-595-8}}</ref> and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But the story is not unlikely in itself.<ref name="ebd"> [[Glanville Downey]], ''Ancient Antioch'' (Princeton, [[Princeton University Press]], 1963). Available as a [https://archive.org/details/Downey1961Antioch/ PDF File]</ref>

After Alexander's death in 323&nbsp;BC, his generals, the [[Diadochi]], divided up the territory he had conquered. After the [[Battle of Ipsus|Battle of Ipsos]] in 301 BC, [[Seleucus I Nicator]] won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father [[Antiochus (father of Seleucus I Nicator)|Antiochus]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblewise.com/bible_study/characters/syrian-pisidian-antioch.php|title=Syrian Antioch and Pisidian Antioch|publisher=Bible Wise|access-date=22 September 2017}}</ref> according to the ''[[Suda]]'', it might be named after his son [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Suda|chapter=s.v. Ἀντιόχεια|url=https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-cgi-bin/search.cgi?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=seleukos&field=any&num_per_page=1}} At the Suda On Line project of the Stoa Consortium.</ref> He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs.<ref name="ebd2">{{EBD|title=Seleucia}}</ref>

Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An [[eagle]], the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. Seleucus did this on the 22nd day of the month of [[Ancient Macedonian calendar|Artemísios]] in the twelfth year of his reign, equivalent to May 300 BC.<ref>[[John Malalas]], [http://www.attalus.org/translate/malalas.html#199 Book 8, pp.199–202]</ref> Antioch soon rose above [[Seleucia Pieria]] to become the Syrian capital.

Xenaeus (Ξεναῖος) was the architect who built the walls of Antioch during [[Seleucus I]]'s reign.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DX%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dxenaeus-bio-1 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Xenaeus]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=antiocheia-geo&highlight=xenaeus Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Antiocheia]</ref>

[[File:Antakya Archaeological Museum Antakya Archaeology Museum Boat of Psyches in 2004 03.jpg|thumbnail|left|Mosaic of Eros standing on the wings of two Psyches and whipping them on in [[Hatay Archaeology Museum]]]]
[[File:Antakya Archaeology Museum Drunken Dionysus mosaic in 2008 0009.jpg|thumbnail|left|Dionysus mosaic in [[Hatay Archaeology Museum]]]]

== Hellenistic age ==
The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the [[grid plan]] of [[Alexandria]] by the architect [[Xenarius]]. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p.&nbsp;300. 17).

The citadel was on Mount Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by [[Antiochus I Soter]], which, from an expression of [[Strabo]], appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=130}}

In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this [[Seleucus II Callinicus]] began a third walled "city", which was finished by [[Antiochus III the Great]]. A fourth and last quarter was added by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] (175–164&nbsp;BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as ''Tetrapolis''. From west to east the whole was about {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=off}} in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=130}}

The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). According to ancient tradition, Antioch was settled by 5,500 Athenians and Macedonians, together with an unknown number of native Syrians. This number probably refers to free adult citizens, so that the total number of free Greek settlers including women and children was probably between 17,000 and 25,000.<ref name="AncientAntiochPop">{{cite journal |last=Downey |first=Glanville |date=1958 |title=The Size of the Population of Antioch |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/283667 |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=89 |issue= |pages=84–91 |doi=10.2307/283667 |jstor=283667 |access-date=2022-06-14|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="ebd"/>

About {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=off}} west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by [[Bryaxis]]. A companion sanctuary of [[Hecate]] was constructed underground by [[Diocletian]]. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the ancient world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|pp=130–131}}

Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being [[Seleucia]]; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240&nbsp;BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of [[Pergamon]].{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in the [[Hellenistic period]], apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for being "a populous city, full of most erudite men and rich in the most liberal studies",<ref>[[Cicero]] ''[[Pro Archia]]'', p. 4</ref> but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period that have come down to us are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were [[Aramaic]]; and, except [[Apollo]] and [[Daphne]], the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and [[Atargatis]] of [[Hierapolis Bambyce]].{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

The epithet "Golden" suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the [[earthquake|seismic disturbances]] to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler [[John Malalas]]. It occurred in 148&nbsp;BC and did immense damage.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}<ref>[[John Malalas]], [http://www.attalus.org/translate/malalas.html#207 Book 8, pp. 207–208]</ref>

Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against [[Alexander Balas]] in 147&nbsp;BC, and [[Demetrius II Nicator]] in 129&nbsp;BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited [[Tigranes the Great]] to occupy the city in 83&nbsp;BC, tried to unseat [[Antiochus XIII Asiaticus]] in 65&nbsp;BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64&nbsp;BC, but remained a ''civitas libera''.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

== Roman period ==
===Roman rule before Constantine===
[[File:Ancient Roman road of Tall Aqibrin.jpg|thumb|250px|Ancient [[Roman road]] located in [[Syria]] which connected Antioch and [[Chalcis, Syria|Chalcis]].]]
[[File:Argenteus-Constantius I-antioch RIC 033a.jpg|thumb|250px|This [[argenteus]] was struck in the Antioch mint, under [[Constantius Chlorus]].]]
[[File:Domitian Tetradrachm 1.jpg|alt=Domitian Tetradrachm from Antioch Mint|thumb|250x250px|Rare Domitian Tetradrachm struck in the Antioch Mint. Only 23 known examples. Note the realist portrait, typical of the Antioch Mint.]]
[[File:Amazonomachy Antioch Louvre Ma3457.jpg|thumb|A Greek rider seizes a mounted [[Amazons|Amazonian warrior]] (armed with a double-headed axe) by her [[Phrygian cap]]; [[Roman mosaic]] emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of [[Antioch-on-the-Orontes]] (now [[Antakya]] in [[Turkey]])]]
The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. [[Julius Caesar]] visited it in 47&nbsp;BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to [[Jupiter Capitolinus]] rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of [[Augustus|Octavian]], whose cause the city had espoused. A [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] of Roman type was laid out. [[Tiberius]] built two long [[colonnade]]s on the south towards Silpius.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

[[Strabo]], writing in the reign of [[Augustus]] and the first years of Tiberius, states that Antioch is not much smaller than Seleucia and Alexandria; Alexandria had been said by [[Diodorus Siculus]] in the mid-first century BC to have 300,000 free inhabitants, which would mean that Antioch was about this size in Strabo's time.<ref name="AncientAntiochPop"/>

[[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and [[Trajan]] finished their work. [[Antoninus Pius]] paved the great east to west artery with granite. [[Circus of Antioch|A circus]], other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new [[aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]] to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of [[Hadrian]]. The Roman client, King Herod (most likely the great builder [[Herod the Great]]), erected a long ''[[stoa]]'' on the east, and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] ({{circa|63}}–12&nbsp;BC) encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}<!---whatever Herod needs linking (my strong guess is [[Herod the Great]], what other Herod had this power?, also the Agrippa time period is right)--->

One of the most famous Roman additions to the city was its [[hippodrome]], the '''Circus of Antioch'''. This [[chariot racing]] venue was probably built in the reign of Augustus, when the city had more than half a million inhabitants; it was modelled on the [[Circus Maximus]] in [[Rome]] and other [[circus (building)|circus buildings]] throughout the empire. Measuring more than {{convert|490|m|abbr=off}} in length and {{convert|30|m|abbr=off}} of width,<ref name="Humphrey1986">{{cite book|first=John|last=Humphrey|title=Roman Circuses: Arenas for Charioteers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=couetXBQO9AC&pg=PA446|access-date=25 August 2012|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04921-5|pages=446–}}</ref> the Circus could house up to 80,000 spectators.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} The most important building though was the '''Imperial Palace'''.<ref name="Antiochepedia" /> It housed the roman emperor on occasion and may have originally been the seleucid palace. According to [[Libanius]], at his time the palace won in any comparison of its size and was unsurpassed in beauty.<ref name="Antiochepedia">{{cite web |title=Antiochepedia |url=https://libaniusredux.blogspot.com/2008/03/imperial-palace.html |website=Antiochepedia|date=18 March 2008 }}</ref>

[[Zarmanochegas]] (Zarmarus) a monk of the [[Sramana]] tradition of India, according to [[Strabo]] and [[Dio Cassius]], met [[Nicholas of Damascus]] in Antioch around 13&nbsp;AD as part of a Mission to [[Augustus]].<ref>Strabo, 15.7.73 [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-eng2:15.1.73].</ref><ref>[[Dio Cassius]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#9 liv, 9].</ref> At Antioch [[Germanicus]] died in 19&nbsp;AD, and his body was burnt in the forum.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor [[Caligula]] to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

[[Titus]] visited Antioch in the spring of 71 AD, where he encountered a crowd demanding the expulsion of Jews from the city.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Diaspora A.D. 66–70 and After |date=1976 |work=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |pages=363–364 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004502048/B9789004502048_s022.xml |access-date=2025-01-04 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004502048_022 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He refused, explaining that their country [[First Jewish–Roman War|had been destroyed]], and no other place would accept them.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Andrade |first=Nathanael J. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syrian-identity-in-the-grecoroman-world/8B66EF5D1CDAF92B8E453B2281E7D88A |title=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01205-9 |series=Greek Culture in the Roman World |location=Cambridge |pages=115 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511997808}}</ref> The crowd then sought to revoke the Jews' political privileges by asking Titus to remove the bronze tablets inscribed with their rights, but Titus declined once more.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In 115 AD, during [[Trajan]]'s travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was [[115 Antioch earthquake|convulsed by a huge earthquake]]. The landscape altered, and the emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned.

[[Commodus]] (r. 177–192 AD) had [[Olympic games]] celebrated at Antioch.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

[[File:The Antioch Chalice, first half of 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Antioch chalice|Antioch Chalice]], first half of 6th century, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]
In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]] under [[Shapur I]], and many of the people were slain in the theatre. The city was burned and some 100,000 inhabitants were killed while the rest were deported to Shapur's newly built city of [[Gundeshapur]].{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} It was recaptured by the Roman emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] the following year.

=== Christianity ===
[[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch was a chief center of early Christianity]] during Roman times,<ref name="edwards">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Edwards |first1=Robert W. |title=Antioch (Seleukia Pieria) |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology |editor-first=Paul Corby |editor-last=Finney |date=2017 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing| location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |isbn=978-0-8028-3811-7| pages=73–74}}</ref> and converts there were the first people to be called Christians.<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|11:26|KJV}}</ref> The city had a large population of Jewish origin in a quarter called the [[Kerateion]], and so attracted the earliest missionaries.<ref>Acts 11:19</ref> Among these was [[Saint Peter|Peter]] himself, according to the tradition upon which the [[Patriarch of Antioch|Patriarchate of Antioch]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pelikan |first1=Jarislov |title=The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, Vol. 2: The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600–1700) |date=1974 |publisher=U of Chicago P |location=Chicago |page=162 |isbn=9780226653730 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lr3ebI4iiwcC&dq=primacy+antioch+peter&pg=PA162 |access-date=15 Dec 2022}}</ref> still rests its claim for primacy.<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|11|KJV}}</ref> This is not to be confused with [[Antioch, Pisidia|Antioch in Pisidia]], to which [[Barnabas]] and [[Paul of Tarsus]] later travelled.<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|13:14–50|KJV}}</ref>

Between 252 and 300 AD, [[Synods of Antioch|ten assemblies]] of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the five original [[patriarchate]]s,{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} along with [[Constantinople]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Rome]] (see [[Pentarchy]]). Today five churches use the title of patriarch of Antioch for their prime bishops: one [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] (the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]); three [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] (the [[Maronite Church|Maronite]], [[Syriac Catholic Church|Syriac Catholic]], and [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church]]es); and one [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] (the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]]). This title has been maintained though most of them have moved their seat to [[Damascus]]. This is somewhat analogous to the manner in which several popes, heads of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] remained "Bishop of Rome" even while residing in [[Avignon]], in present-day France, in the fourteenth century. The Maronite Church, which has also moved the seat away to [[Bkerké]], Lebanon, continues the Antiochene liturgical tradition and the use of the [[Syro-Aramaic]] language in their liturgies.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

[[Emperor Constantine]] who had [[Edict of Milan|decriminalised Christianity in 313]], begun the building of the [[Domus Aurea (Antioch)|Domus Aurea or Great Church]] in 327 which served for the next two centuries as the leading church of Antioch.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book|last=Kelly|first=J. N. D.|title=Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom – Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2TNPY3qjlIC&pg=PA2 |year=1998|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8573-2|pages=2–3}}</ref>

[[John Chrysostom]] writes that when [[Ignatius of Antioch]] was bishop in the city, the ''dêmos,'' probably meaning the number of free adult men and women without counting children and slaves, numbered 200,000.<ref name="AncientAntiochPop"/> In a letter written in 363, [[Libanius]] says the city contains 150,000 ''anthrôpoi'' (plural of anthropos, [[human]]) a word which would ordinarily mean all human beings of any age, sex, or [[social status]], seemingly indicating a decline in the population since the first century.<ref name="AncientAntiochPop"/><ref>A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Vol. II 1984 pp. 1040 & 1409 {{ISBN|0-8018-3354-X}}</ref> Chrysostom also says in one of his homilies on the [[Gospel of Matthew]], which were delivered between 386 and 393, that in his own time there were 100,000 Christians in Antioch, a figure which may refer to orthodox Christians who belonged to the [[Great Church]] as opposed to members of other groups such as [[Arians]] and [[Apollinarians]], or to all Christians of any persuasion.<ref name="AncientAntiochPop"/>

=== Age of Julian and Valens ===
[[File:JulianusII-antioch(360-363)-CNG.jpg|thumb|250px|A bronze coin from Antioch depicting the [[Julian the Apostate|emperor Julian]]. Note the pointed beard.]]
When the [[Julian the Apostate|emperor Julian]] visited in 362 on a detour to the [[Sasanian Empire]], he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of [[Constantinople]]. Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] implies lived quite harmoniously together. However, Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with a lament for [[Adonis]], the doomed lover of [[Aphrodite]]. Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming.

After being advised that the bones of third-century martyred bishop [[Babylas of Antioch|Babylas]] were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF1-09/npnf1-09-20.htm |title=St John Chrysostom's homily on Saint Babylas |access-date=2012-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706194336/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF1-09/npnf1-09-20.htm |archive-date=2008-07-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up Constantine's Great Church, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 22.12.8{{snd}}22.13.3</ref><ref>[[Socrates of Constantinople]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 3.18</ref>

Julian found much else to criticize about the Antiochenes; he had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some [[Antonines|200&nbsp;years before]], but Antioch's [[Decurion (administrative)|city councilmen]] showed themselves unwilling to shore up a local food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them. Further, Julian was surprised and dismayed when at the city's annual feast of Apollo the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a goose, showing the decay of paganism in the town.

Ammianus writes that the Antiochenes hated Julian in turn for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his [[billet]]ed troops. His enthusiasm for large scale [[animal sacrifice]] meant that the soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan [[Gauls|Gallic]] soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye. Even to those who kept the old religion, Julian's brand of paganism was distasteful, being very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated [[Neo Platonism|Neoplatonist]] circles. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only the nickname ''axeman'', wrote Ammianus.

The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene [[parody|lampoon]]s about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably [[goatee|pointed beard]].<ref>''Ridebatur enim ut Cercops...barbam prae se ferens hircinam.'' [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]] XXII 14.</ref>

Julian's successor [[Valens]] endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of his brother and co-emperor [[Valentinian I]] on a central column, and reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood until the Persian sack in 538, by [[Khosrau I|Chosroes]].{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}}

=== Theodosius and after ===
In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of [[Theodosius I]], and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} Theodosius placed Antioch under Constantinople's rule when he divided the Roman Empire.

[[John Malalas]], a chronicler writing in the 6th century, describes a theater in the city's suburb of Daphne that was built on the ruins of a synagogue. The theater had an inscription stating it was constructed "from the spoils of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]".<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Lee I |title=The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years |date=2005 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10628-2 |edition=2nd |location=New Haven |pages=126}}</ref> He also mentions a gate of [[cherub]]s in the city, which Titus constructed using the spoils of the [[Second Temple]].<ref name=":3" />
[[File:Antioch Alexandria and Seleucia.png|thumb|left|The Peutinger Map showing Antioch, Alexandria and Seleucia in the 4th century.]]
Antioch and its port, [[Seleucia Pieria]], were severely damaged by the [[526 Antioch earthquake|great earthquake of 526]]. Seleucia Pieria, which was already fighting a losing battle against continual silting, never recovered.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/se-sg/seleucia/seleucia_pieria.html |title=Seleucia in Pieria, Ancient Warfare Magazine |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2013-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030042804/http://www.livius.org/se-sg/seleucia/seleucia_pieria.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> A [[528 Antioch earthquake|second earthquake]] affected Antioch in 528.<ref name="ngdc1">{{cite web |title=Significant Earthquake Information |date=1972 |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/134 |publisher=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K |access-date=13 August 2024 |author1=National Geophysical Data Center }}</ref> [[Justinian I]] renamed Antioch '''Theopolis''' ("City of God") and restored many of its public buildings, but the destructive work was completed in 540 by the Persian king, [[Khosrau I]], who deported the population to a newly built city in Persian Mesopotamia, [[Weh Antiok Khosrow]]. Antioch lost as many as 300,000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and [[Procopius]] describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} Another earthquake in 588 destroyed the Domus Aureus of Constantine, whereafter the [[church of Cassian]] became the most important church of Antioch.<ref name="Kennedy">{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh N.|title=The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdFqgSBTYeYC&pg=PA185|volume=860|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-5909-9|pages=185–191|series=Variorum Collected Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kennedy |first1=Hugh N. |title=The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-5909-9 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdFqgSBTYeYC |access-date=8 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

During the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], the Emperor [[Heraclius]] confronted the invading Persian army of [[Khosrow II]] outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals [[Shahrbaraz]] and [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan]] at the [[Battle of Antioch (613)|Battle of Antioch]], after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia.

Antioch gave its name to a [[School of Antioch|certain school]] of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of [[Jesus]]. [[Diodorus of Tarsus]] and [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was [[Simeon Stylites]], who lived an extremely [[ascetic]] life atop a pillar for 40&nbsp;years some {{convert|65|km|0|abbr=off}} [[Church of Saint Simeon Stylites|east of Antioch]]. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor [[Leo II (emperor)|Leo]].{{sfn|Rockwell|1911|p=131}} During the Byzantine era, great [[Bath House|bathhouses]] were built in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine centers]] such as [[Constantinople]] and Antioch.<ref>{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan |editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6}}</ref>

== Arab and Byzantine era ==
[[File:Fall of Antioch in 969.png|thumb|Byzantine recapture of Antioch in 969]]
In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]], Antioch was conquered by [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] during the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge]], marking the beginning of Islamic influence in the region. The city became known in Arabic as {{lang|ar|أنطاكية}} {{transliteration|ALA|Anṭākiyah}}. Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750 AD), Antioch served as a significant military and administrative center. The Umayyads fortified the city, utilizing it as a base for operations in the region. The city remained an important urban center, with its multicultural population including Christians, Muslims, and Jews living together, although there were periods of tension and conflict.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. |date= 2010 |publisher=Orion |isbn=9780297865599}}</ref> However, since the [[Umayyad|Umayyad dynasty]] was unable to penetrate the [[Anatolian Plateau]], Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350&nbsp;years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline. During the Abbasid period (750–969 AD), Antioch continued to thrive as a hub of commerce and culture. Under the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]], closer relations were developed with Byzantium, but it was not until the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] opened up the Mediterranean for shipping from the end of the fourth/tenth century that the affairs of western Europe and the Near East began to interact once again. The Abbasids placed a strong emphasis on trade, which facilitated economic prosperity in Antioch. The city became known for its diverse markets, contributing to the flow of goods and ideas between the Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century |publisher=Routledge |year= 2022 |isbn=9780367366896 |edition=4th |language=English}}</ref>

[[File:AntiochRamparts.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Defensive wall|rampart]]s of Antioch climbing Mons Silpius during the Crusades (lower left on the map, ''above left'')]]
The decline of Arab rule in Antioch began in the late 9th century with increasing pressure from the Byzantine forces. The city changed hands several times during the [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Byzantine-Arab wars]], Before finally, in 969 AD, under the Byzantine Emperor [[Nikephoros II Phokas]], the city was captured after [[Siege of Antioch (968-969)|the siege of Antioch (968–969)]] by the Byzantine general [[Michael Bourtzes]] and the ''[[stratopedarches]]'' [[Peter (stratopedarches)|Peter]]. It soon became the seat of a ''[[Dux#Later developments|doux]]'', the civil governor of the homonymous [[Theme (Byzantine district)|theme]], but also the seat of the somewhat more important ''[[Domestic of the Schools]] of the Orient'', the supreme military commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. Sometimes both offices were held by the same person, usually military officers such as [[Nikephoros Ouranos]], or [[Philaretos Brachamios]], who managed to retain the integrity of the eastern borderline after the Seljuk conquest of Anatolia. The size of the Melkite community increased during that time due to immigration from Christians from Fatimid Egypt but also other parts of the Near East and Christians remained the dominant population up to the Crusades.<ref name="Kennedy" />

As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the [[Komnenian restoration]], ''Dux of Antioch'' & ''Domestic of the Schools of the East'' [[Philaretos Brachamios]] held the city until [[Suleiman ibn Qutalmish]], the [[Sultanate of Rum|emir of Rum]], captured it from him in 1084.{{sfn|Albu|2015|pp=160–161}} Two years later, Suleiman was killed fighting against [[Tutush I|Tutush]], the brother of the [[Malik-Shah I|Seljuk Sultan]], who annexed the city into the [[Seljuk Empire]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=154}} [[Yagisiyan]] was appointed governor. He became increasingly independent within the tumultuous years following Malik-Shah's death in 1092.

== Crusader era ==
{{Main|Principality of Antioch}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Principality of Antioch}}

[[File:Capture of Antioch by Bohemond of Tarente in June 1098.JPG|thumb|250px|A 19th-century painting of the [[Siege of Antioch|capture of Antioch]] by [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemund of Taranto]] in June 1098.]]

The Crusaders' [[Siege of Antioch]] conquered the city in June 1098 after a siege lasting eight months on their way to Jerusalem. At this time, the bulk of far eastern trade traveled through Egypt, but in the second half of the 12th century [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ed-Din]] and later [[Saladin]] brought order to Muslim Syria, opening up long-distance trade routes, including to Antioch and on to its new port, [[Port Saint Symeon|St Symeon]], which had replaced Seleucia Pieria. However, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century altered the main trade routes from the far east, as they encouraged merchants to take the overland route through Mongol territory to the Black Sea, reducing the prosperity of Antioch.<ref>Steven Runciman, ''A History of the Crusades, Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1955, pp. 326, 354–359</ref> Surrounding the city were a number of Greek, Syrian, Georgian, Armenian, and Latin monasteries.<ref>''Byzantine Religious Culture: Studies in Honor of Alice-Mary Talbot'', [[Alice-Mary Maffry Talbot]], Denis Sullivan, Elizabeth A. Fisher, Stratis Papaioannou, p. 281</ref>

===Consolidation of the Principality===
In 1100, [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] became the [[regent]] of Antioch after his uncle and predecessor [[Bohemond I of Antioch]] was taken prisoner for three years (1100–03) by [[Gazi Gümüshtigin]] of the [[Danishmends]] at the [[Battle of Melitene]]. Tancred expanded the territory of Antioch by conquering [[Cilicia|Byzantine Cilicia]], [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], and [[Adana]] in 1101. In 1107 Bohemond enraged by an earlier defeat, renamed Tancred as the regent of Antioch so he could sail for Europe with the intent of gaining support for an attack against the Greeks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/shorthistoryofan00boucuoft#page/n7/mode/2up |title=A short history of Antioch, 300 B.C.–A.D. 1268 |access-date=2013-03-25|publisher=Oxford, Blackwell |year=1921 }}</ref><ref>Antioch (International Internet Preservation Consortium)</ref>

Bohemond laid siege to Dyrrachium but capitulated in September 1108 and was forced to accede to a peace accord, the [[Treaty of Devol]] which stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However, Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Deabolis in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1156 that it truly became a [[vassal]] state of the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>The Crusades The War For The Holy Land by Thomas Asbridge p. 114 (p.3) to p. 115</ref><ref>Ibn al-Athir vol. 2, p. 320; Hillenbrand, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC&q=Antioch The Crusades: Islamic perspectives], pp. 175–185</ref> Six months after the [[Treaty of Devol|Treaty of Deabolis]] Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112.

After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to [[Roger of Salerno]], who helped rebuild Antioch after [[1114 Marash earthquake|an earthquake]] destroyed its foundations in 1114. With the death of Roger at the [[Battle of Ager Sanguinis]] in 1119, the role of regent was assumed by [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]], lasting until 1126. In 1126 [[Bohemond II of Antioch|Bohemond II]] arrived from Apulia to gain regency over Antioch. In 1130 Bohemond was lured into an ambush by [[Leo I, Prince of Armenia]] who allied with the [[Danishmend]] [[Gazi Gümüshtigin]], and was killed in the subsequent battle.<ref>A History of the Crusades – Volume II.: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East: 1100–1187.</ref><ref>The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins (1080–1393).</ref>

Antioch was again ruled by a regency, firstly being Baldwin II, after his daughter and Bohemond II's wife, [[Alice of Antioch]] attempted to block Baldwin from entering Antioch, but failed when Antiochene nobles such as [[Fulk of Jerusalem]] (Alice's brother-in-law) opened up the gates for representatives of Baldwin II. Alice was then expelled from Antioch. With the death of Baldwin in 1131, Alice briefly took control of Antioch and allied herself with [[Pons of Tripoli]] and [[Joscelin II of Edessa]] in an attempt to prevent [[Fulk, King of Jerusalem]] from marching north in 1132; however, this attempt failed. In 1133 the king chose [[Raymond of Poitiers]] as a groom for [[Constance of Antioch]], daughter of [[Bohemund II of Antioch]] and [[Alice of Antioch|Alice]], [[kingdom of Jerusalem|princess of Jerusalem]].<ref>Usmah Ibn Munqidh (1095–1188): Autobiography: Excerpts on the Franks, c. 1175 CE.</ref> The marriage took place in 1136 between the 21-year-old Raymond and the 9-year-old Constance.

Immediately after assuming control, Raymond was involved in conflicts with the [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[John II Comnenus]] who had come south to recover [[Cilicia]] from [[Leo I, Prince of Armenia|Leo of Armenia]], and to reassert his rights over Antioch. The engagement lasted until 1137 when emperor John II arrived with an army before the walls of Antioch. Although the [[basileus]] did not enter the city, his banner was raised atop the citadel and Raymond was compelled to do homage. Raymond agreed with the emperor that if he was capable of capturing [[Aleppo]], [[Shaizar]], and [[Homs]], he would exchange Antioch for them.<ref name="ReferenceA">''[[Annales Herbipolenses]]'', s.a. 1147: A Hostile View of the Crusade</ref> John went on to attack Aleppo with the aid of Antioch and Edessa, and failed to capture it, with the Franks withdrawing their support when he moved on to capture Shaizar. John returned to Antioch ahead of his army and entered Antioch, only to be forced to leave when [[Joscelin II, Count of Edessa]] rallied the citizens to oust him.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> After the [[fall of Edessa]] in 1144, many Syriac Orthodox Christians came into the city, spreading the veneration of Mor Barsauma among the local population which resulted in the building of a church to the saint in 1156.{{sfn|Weltecke|2006|pp=113–114}}

=== Second Crusade ===
Nur ad-Din Zangi attacked Antioch in both 1147 and 1148 and succeeded during the second venture in occupying most of the territory east of the [[Orontes river|Orontes]] but failed to capture Antioch itself. [[Louis VII of France]] arrived in Antioch on March 19, 1148, where he was welcomed by the uncle of his spouse [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], Raymond of Poitiers.

Louis refused to help Antioch defend against the Turks and to lead an expedition against Aleppo, and instead decided to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the Crusades. With Louis quickly leaving Antioch again and the Crusaders returning home in 1149.<ref>The Crusades: A Documentary Survey Brundage</ref>

With Raymond dead and [[Bohemond III]] only five years of age, the principality came under the control of Raymond's widow [[Constance of Antioch]]; however, real control lay with [[Aimery of Limoges]]. In 1153, Constance chose [[Raynald of Châtillon]] and married him in secret without consulting her first cousin and liege lord, Baldwin III, and neither Baldwin nor Aimery of Limoges approved of her choice.<ref>Les Familles d'Outremer</ref>

In 1156 Raynald claimed that the Byzantine emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] had reneged on his promises to pay Raynald a sum of money, and would later attack Cyprus.<ref>od's War: A New History of the Crusade</ref> This caused [[Manuel I Comnenus]] to raise an army to Syria. Raynald then surrendered, the emperor insisted on the installation of a Greek Patriarch and the surrender of the citadel in Antioch. The following spring, Manuel made a triumphant entry into the city and established himself as the unquestioned [[suzerain]] of Antioch.

In 1160 Raynald was captured by Muslims and held captive for 16 years, with Raynald disposed of for a long time, the patriarch Aimery became the new regent, chosen by Baldwin III. To further consolidate his own claim over Antioch, Manuel chose [[Maria of Antioch]] as his bride, daughter of Constance and Raymond. Antioch remained in crisis until 1163 when Constance asked the Armenia to help maintain her rule, as a result the citizens of Antioch exiled her and installed her son [[Bohemond III]] and now brother-in-law to the emperor, as regent.<ref>Religious and Military Crusader Orders in Syria in the 12th and 13th Centuries. Amman 2003.</ref>

One year later, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi]] captured Bohemond III but was soon released; however, [[Harem, Syria]], which Raynald had recaptured in 1158, was lost again and the frontier of Antioch was permanently placed west of the Orontes.<ref>Seeing Islam as Others Saw
Athanasius II</ref><ref>Earthquakes in Syria during the Crusades. Cairo 1996.</ref>

=== Third Crusade ===
While travelling on crusade, Emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]] drowned in the river [[Saleph]]. His son, [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick VI]], then led the remnant of the Crusader army south towards Antioch.{{sfn|Hosler|2018|p=64}} Subsequently, he arranged for his father's flesh remains to be buried in the Cathedral of Saint Peter in Antioch.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=512}} Throughout the Third Crusade, Antioch remained neutral; however, with the end of the Third Crusade (1192), they were included in the [[Treaty of Ramla]] between Richard and Saladin.<ref>Axelrod, Alan and Charles L. Phillips, editors. "Encyclopedia of Historical Treaties and Alliances, Vol. 1". Zenda Inc., New York, 2001</ref><ref>Wolff p. 113</ref><ref>Konstam, Historical Atlas of the Crusades, 162</ref><ref>Comyn, p. 267</ref>

[[Henry II, Count of Champagne]] travelled to [[Lesser Armenia]] and managed to persuade Leo that in exchange for Antioch, renouncing its overlordship to Lesser Armenia and to release Bohemond, who died in 1201. With the death of Bohemond III there followed a 15-year struggle for power of Antioch, between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia. According to the rules of [[primogeniture]] Leo's great nephew Raymond-Roupen was the rightful heir of Antioch, and Leo's position was supported by the pope. On the other hand, however, the city commune of Antioch supported [[Bohemond IV of Antioch]], on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the last ruling prince, Bohemond III. In 1207 Bohemond IV installed a Greek patriarch in Antioch, despite the [[East–West Schism]], under the help of Aleppo, Bohemond IV drove Leo out of Antioch.<ref>A short history of Antioch, 300&nbsp;B.C.–A.D. 1268 (1921)</ref><ref>Riley-Smith, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades</ref>

=== Fifth Crusade ===
{{See also|Armeno-Mongol relations}}
The calling of the [[Fifth Crusade]] strengthened the support of Ayyubid Sultan [[al-Adil I]] who supported Raymond-Roupen's claims in Antioch. In 1216 Leo installed Raymond-Roupen as prince of Antioch, ending all military aspect of the struggle between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia, but the citizens again revolted against Raymond-Roupen in {{circa|1219}} and Bohemond of Tripoli was recognised as prince. From 1233 onwards Antioch declined and appeared rarely in records for 30 years, and in 1254 the altercations of the past between Antioch and Armenia were laid to rest when [[Bohemond VI of Antioch]] married the then 17‑year‑old [[Sibylla of Armenia]], and Bohemond VI became a vassal of the Armenian kingdom. Effectively, the Armenian kings ruled Antioch while the prince of Antioch resided in Tripoli. The Armenians drew up a treaty with the Mongols, who were now ravaging Muslim lands, and under protection they extended their territory into the lands of the [[Seljuq dynasty]] in the north and the Aleppo territory to the south. Antioch was part of this Armeno-Mongol alliance. Bohemond VI managed to retake Lattakieh and reestablished the land bridge between Antioch and Tripoli, while the Mongols insisted he install the Greek patriarch there rather than a Latin one as the Mongols wanted to strengthen ties to the Orthodox Byzantines.<ref>Jean Richard, The Crusades: c. 1071{{snd}}c. 1291, pp 423–426</ref><ref>"Ghazan resumed his plans against Egypt in 1297: the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, in spite of the loss of Acre by the Franks, and the conversion of the Persian Mongols to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mumluks, which was only signed in 1322 by the khan Abu Said", Jean Richard, p. 468</ref>

=== Fall of Antioch ===
{{See also|Siege of Antioch (1268)}}
In 1268, Baibars besieged Antioch, capturing the city on May 18. Baibars promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but broke his promise and razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population upon their surrender.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2777|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108224216/http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2777|url-status=dead|title=Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars|archivedate=January 8, 2009}}</ref> Antioch's ruler, [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Prince Bohemond VI]] was then left with no territories except the County of Tripoli. Without any southern fortifications and with Antioch isolated it could not withstand the resurgent Muslim forces, and with the fall of the city, the remainder of northern Syria eventually capitulated, ending the Latin presence in Syria.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Asia/Armenia/_Texts/KURARM/30*.html New scourge from Egypt], A History of Armenia by Vahan M. Kurkjian</ref> The Mamluk armies killed or enslaved every Christian in Antioch.<ref>Michaud, ''The History of the Crusades'', Vol. 3, p. 18; available [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_mAcMAAAAYAAJ in full at Internet Archive]. In a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol. 3, p. 22) for much of the information he has concerning the ''Mussulmans''.</ref> In 1355 it still had a considerable population, but by 1432 there were only about 300 inhabited houses within its walls, mostly occupied by [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcomans]].<ref>Runciman, op. cit., p. 326.</ref>

== Ottoman period ==
Antioch was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Syria in 1516. It formed a sub-province (''sancak'') or tax collectorship (''muhassıllık'') of the province of Aleppo ([[Aleppo Eyalet]]). Beginning in the mid-18th century, the district witnessed an influx of [[Alawite]] settlers coming from the [[Latakia]] area.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Winter |first1=Stefan |title=A History of the 'Alawis: From Medieval Aleppo to the Turkish Republic |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton and Oxford |isbn=9780691173894 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Suf-CwAAQBAJ}}</ref> The famous Barker family of British consuls had a summer home in Suwaydiyya (today's [[Samandağ]]), at the mouth of the [[Orontes River]], in the 19th century. Between 1831 and 1840, Antioch was the military headquarters of [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] during the Egyptian occupation of Syria, and served as a model site for the modernizing reforms he wished to institute.<ref>{{cite book|first=Sylvain|last=Cornac|editor1-first=Stefan|editor1-last=Winter|editor2-first=Mafalda|editor2-last=Ade|title=Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane| chapter=Antioche sous l'occupation égyptienne (1832–1840) : l'émergence d'un centre de pouvoir militaire et modernisateur|year=2019|pages=152–174| publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004414006_008|isbn=978-90-04-37902-2|s2cid=214223544}}</ref>

==Archaeology==
[[File:Tyche Antioch Vatican Inv2672.jpg|thumb|250px|The ''Týkhē'' (Fortune) of Antioch, Galleria dei Candelabri, the [[Vatican Museums]].]]

Few traces of the once great Roman city are visible today aside from the massive fortification walls that snake up the mountains to the east of the modern city, several aqueducts, and the [[Church of Saint Peter|Church of St Peter]] (St Peter's Cave Church, Cave-Church of St. Peter), said to be a meeting place of an [[Early Christian]] community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/antioch-cave-church-of-peter.htm|title=Sacred Destinations|access-date=2008-07-01}}</ref> The majority of the Roman city lies buried beneath deep sediments from the Orontes River, or has been obscured by recent construction.

Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the "Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity", which was made up of representatives from the [[Louvre Museum]], the [[Baltimore Museum of Art]], the [[Worcester Art Museum]], [[Princeton University]], [[Wellesley College]], and later (1936) also the [[Fogg Art Museum]] at [[Harvard University]] and its affiliate [[Dumbarton Oaks]].

The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including [[Domus Aurea (Antioch)|Constantine's Great Octagonal Church]] or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Seleucia Pieria.

The principal excavations of Mosaics at Antioch led by Princeton University in March 1932 recovered nearly 300 mosaics. Many of these mosaics were originally displayed as floor mosaics in private homes during the second through sixth centuries AD, while others were displayed in baths and other public buildings. The majority of the [[Antioch mosaics]] are from the fourth and fifth centuries, Antioch's golden age, though others from earlier times have survived as well.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Downey|first1=Glanville|title=Personifications of Abstract Ideas in the Antioch Mosaics|journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association|date=1938|volume=6|pages=349–363|doi=10.2307/283184|jstor=283184}}</ref> The mosaics depict a variety of images including animals, plants, and mythological beings, as well as scenes from the daily lives of people living in the area at the time. Each mosaic is bordered by intricate designs and contains bold, vibrant colors.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fant|first1=Clyde E.|last2=Reddish|first2=Mitchell G.|title=A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey|date=2003|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-513918-1|page=150}}</ref>

One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the [[Hatay Archaeology Museum]] in [[Antakya]]. A collection of mosaics on both secular and sacred subjects which were once in churches, private homes, and other public spaces now hang in the [[Princeton University Art Museum]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Frances F|title=Antioch Mosaics in Princeton|journal=Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University|date=1981|volume=40|issue=2|pages=2–26|doi=10.2307/3774611|jstor=3774611}}</ref> and museums of other sponsoring institutions. The non-Islamic coins from the excavations were published by [[Dorothy B. Waage]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Butcher |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FlmAAAAMAAJ&q=dorothy+waage |title=Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC–AD 253 |date=2004 |publisher=Royal Numismatic Society |isbn=978-0-901405-58-6 |pages=2, 362 |language=en}}</ref>

A statue in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican]] and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the [[Tyche]] (Fortune) of Antioch&nbsp;– a majestic seated figure, crowned with the [[Defensive wall|rampart]]s of Antioch's walls and holding wheat stalks in her right hand, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet. According to [[William Robertson Smith]] the Tyche of Antioch was originally a young virgin sacrificed at the time of the founding of the city to ensure its continued prosperity and good fortune.<ref name=Robertson_1889>{{cite book | last = Smith | first = William Robertson | author-link =  | date = 1889 | title = Lectures on the Religion of the Semites | url = https://archive.org/details/lecturesonrelig00smit/page/n5/mode/2up?ref=ol&view=theater&q=antioch | location = University of Cambridge | publisher = D. Appleton and Company | page = 356}}</ref>

The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum.

In April 2016, archaeologists discovered a Greek [[mosaic]] showing a skeleton lying down with a wine pitcher and loaf of bread alongside a text that reads: "Be cheerful, enjoy your life", it is reportedly from the third century BC. Described as the "reckless skeleton" or "skeleton mosaic", the mosaic is once thought to have belonged in the dining room of an upper-class home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/archaeologists-discover-ancient-mosaic-with-message-be-cheerful-enjoy-your-life-a6998346.html|title=Archaeologists discovered an ancient mosaic with a wonderful message|date=April 24, 2016|website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/2016/04/22/2400-year-old-mosaic-found-in-southern-turkey-says-be-cheerful-enjoy-your-life|title=2,400 year-old mosaic found in southern Turkey says 'be cheerful, enjoy your life'|date=April 22, 2016|website=Daily Sabah}}</ref>

==Notable people==
*[[Abba Judan]], philanthropist
*[[Arcadius of Antioch]], Greek grammarian
*[[Asclepiades of Antioch]], Patriarch of Antioch
*[[Saint Barnabas]], one of the prominent [[Disciple (Christianity)|Christian disciples]] in Jerusalem
*[[Saint Domnius]], Bishop of Salona and patron saint of [[Split (city)|Split]]
*[[Dorotheus of Gaza]], 6th century monk and writer 
*[[George of Antioch]], the first to hold the office of [[ammiratus ammiratorum]]
*[[Ignatius of Antioch]], Patriarch of Antioch
*[[John Malalas]], a Greek chronicler 
*[[John Chrysostom]], (349–407) Patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Libanius]], 4th century AD, pagan sophist and confidant of [[Emperor Julian]]
*[[Saint Luke]], 1st century AD, Christian evangelist and author of the [[Gospel of St. Luke]] and [[Acts of the Apostles]]
*[[Severus of Antioch]], was the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], and the head of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]
*[[Aulus Licinius Archias]], Greek poet
*[[Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus]], Roman politician and general
*[[Maron|Saint Maron]], Patriarch of the Maronite Church
*[[Theophilus of Antioch]], Patriarch of Antioch from {{circa}} 169 to {{circa}} 183

==See also==
*[[Antiochene Rite]]
*''[[Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch]]'' from Monty Python
*[[Library of Antioch]]
*[[List of Greek place names]]
*''[[The Martyr of Antioch]]''
*[[Theophilus of Antioch]]

==References and sources==
===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

===References===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book |title=Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World |editor-first1=Kathryn |editor-last1=Hurlock |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last2=Oldfield |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=2015 |chapter=Antioch and the Normans |first=Emily |last=Albu }}
*{{cite book |title= The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |first=René |last=Grousset |translator-first=Naomi |translator-last=Walford |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 }}
*[[Karl Otfried Müller|Müller, Karl Otfried]] (1839). ''Antiquitates Antiochenae''
*Freund, Albin (1882). ''Beiträge zur antiochenischen und zur konstantinopolitanischen Stadtchronik''
*R. Forster (1897). in ''Jahrbuch'' of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii.
* {{cite book |last1=Weltecke |first1=Dorothea |editor1-last=Ciggaar |editor1-first=Krijna Nelly |editor2-last=Metcalf |editor2-first=David Michael |title=East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean: Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest Until the End of the Crusader Principality |date=2006 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-429-1735-4 |pages=95–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DO8qTYM71tQC |access-date=24 February 2024 |language=en |chapter=On the Syriac Orthodox in the Principality of Antioch during the Crusader Period}}
*Wickert, Ulrich (1999). "Antioch." In ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'', edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 81–82. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, {{ISBN|0802824137}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Antioch|volume=2|pages=130–132|first=William Walker|last=Rockwell}}
*{{cite book |last=Freed |first=John |year=2016 |title=Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-122763 }}
* {{cite book | last=Hosler | first=John D. | title=The siege of Acre, 1189–1191 : Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the battle that decided the Third Crusade | publication-place=New Haven | date=2018 | isbn=978-0-300-23535-7 | oclc=1041140126}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Antioch}}
<!--NOTE: This article is about the historical city. For the modern city see [[Antakya]]-->
<!--following usual Wikipedia practices, I think this should be merged into External sources below. References changed to "footnotes."--->
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051230011733/http://www.clevelandart.org/exhibcef/antiochexhib/illusmag/City_Map.jpg The Ancient City of Antioch] Map
*[http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.316.a.php Richard Stillwell, ed. ''Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976:] "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"
*[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/antioch.html Antioch (Antakya)] Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts
*[http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/antakya_museum Antakya Museum] Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics
*[http://libaniusredux.blogspot.com/ Antiochepedia Blog] News and information about ancient Antioch
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150222060236/http://www.hatayarkeolojimuzesi.gov.tr/HatayMuzeWeb/flash/main_EN.html Hatay Archaeology Museum website] (mosaics from Antioch)

{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Hellenistic colonies}}
{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Former settlements in Turkey}}
{{Journeys of Paul of Tarsus}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Antioch| 01]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities in Anatolia]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Turkey]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Turkey]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Hatay Province]]
[[Category:Coloniae (Roman)]]
[[Category:Crusade places]]
[[Category:Geography of Hatay Province]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]
[[Category:Seleucid colonies in Anatolia]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:290s BC establishments]]
[[Category:1268 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 13th century]]
[[Category:Seleucus I Nicator]]