Editing Anubis

{{short description|Ancient Egyptian god of funerary rites}}
{{About|the Egyptian god}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Egyptian
| name = Anubis
| image = Anubis standing.svg
| image_upright = .7
| caption = The [[Egyptian pantheon|Egyptian god]] Anubis,<br>(a modern rendition inspired by [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] tomb paintings)
| hiero = <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>
| cult_center = [[Asyut|Lycopolis]], [[Cynopolis]]
| symbol = Mummy gauze, [[Imiut fetish|fetish]], jackal, [[crook and flail|flail]]
| parents =[[Nephthys]] and [[Osiris]] {{small|(Middle and New kingdom)}}, or [[Ra]] {{small|(Old kingdom)}}, or [[Set (deity)|Set]] {{small|(disputed)<ref>Doxey, Denise (2001). ''Anubis''. In: In D. Redford, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. I.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.98.</ref>}}
| consort = [[Anput]], [[Nephthys]]<ref name="Lévai 2007">{{Cite book|last=Lévai|first=Jessica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7vTAQAACAAJ&q=levai+jessica+aspects+of+nephthys|title=Aspects of the Goddess Nephthys, Especially During the Graeco-Roman Period in Egypt|date=2007|publisher=UMI|language=en|access-date=15 November 2021|archive-date=3 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403005225/https://books.google.com/books?id=C7vTAQAACAAJ&q=levai+jessica+aspects+of+nephthys|url-status=live}}</ref>
| offspring = [[Kebechet]]
| siblings = [[Bata (god)|Bata]]
| Greek_equivalent = [[Hades]] ''or'' [[Hermes]]
}}
{{Ancient Egyptian religion}}
'''Anubis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|nj|uː|b|ᵻ|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Anubis.wav}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἄνουβις}}), also known as '''Inpu''', '''Inpw''', '''Jnpw''', or '''Anpu''' in [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] ({{Langx|cop|ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ|translit=Anoup}}), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the [[Duat|underworld]], in [[ancient Egyptian religion]], usually depicted as a [[Canis|canine]] or a man with a [[cynocephaly|canine head]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Alice K. |title=The History of Hell |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-15-140934-1 |edition=1st |location=United States |pages=13 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Like many [[ancient Egyptian deities]], Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] ({{Circa|3100|2890 BC}}), Anubis was also an [[Embalming|embalmer]]. By the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by [[Osiris]] in his role as lord of the [[underworld]]. One of his prominent roles was as a [[psychopomp|god who ushered souls into the afterlife]]. He attended the [[weighing scale]] during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the [[List of Egyptian gods|Egyptian pantheon]]; however, few major myths involved him.{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}}

Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the [[Nile|Nile River]], and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with [[Wepwawet]], another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=145}} Anubis' female counterpart is [[Anput]]. His daughter is the serpent goddess [[Kebechet]].

==Name==
[[File:Anubis jackal.svg|thumb|Anubis as a jackal perched atop a tomb, symbolizing his protection of the necropolis]]
"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name.{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2000|p=58}}<ref name="AE.net" /> Before the [[Greeks in Egypt|Greeks arrived in Egypt]], around the 7th century BC, the god was known as ''Anpu'' or ''Inpu.'' The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means "a royal child." ''Inpu'' has a root to "inp", which means "to decay." The god was also known as "First of the Westerners," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain," "Ruler of the Nine Bows," "The Dog who Swallows Millions," "Master of Secrets," "He Who is in the Place of Embalming," and "Foremost of the Divine Booth."<ref name=":1">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/|title=Anubis|encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2018-11-18|archive-date=20 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520045846/https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/|url-status=live}}</ref> The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931|title=Anubis|date=2018|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-03|archive-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327135951/https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Anubis/7931|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] ({{Circa|2686 BC|2181 BC}}), the standard way of writing his name in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] was composed of the sound signs '''''inpw''''' followed by a jackal{{efn|The [[Canidae|canid]] which Anubis was modeled upon has frequently been stated to have been the [[golden jackal]], though the African variant of this animal present in Egypt was reclassified in 2015 as a separate species now known as the [[African wolf]], which was found to be more closely related to [[Wolf|wolves]] and [[coyote]]s than to the jackal.<ref name=Koepfli-2015>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060|pmid=26234211|title=Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species|journal=Current Biology|volume=25 |issue=#16 |pages=2158–65 |year=2015 |last1=Koepfli |first1=Klaus-Peter |last2=Pollinger |first2=John |last3=Godinho |first3=Raquel |last4=Robinson |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Lea|first5=Amanda |last6=Hendricks|first6=Sarah|last7=Schweizer|first7=Rena M.|last8=Thalmann|first8=Olaf|last9=Silva|first9=Pedro|last10=Fan|first10=Zhenxin|last11=Yurchenko|first11=Andrey A.|last12=Dobrynin|first12=Pavel|last13=Makunin|first13=Alexey|last14=Cahill|first14=James A.|last15=Shapiro|first15=Beth|last16=Álvares|first16=Francisco|last17=Brito|first17=José C.|last18=Geffen|first18=Eli|last19=Leonard|first19=Jennifer A.|last20=Helgen|first20=Kristofer M.|last21=Johnson|first21=Warren E.|last22=o'Brien|first22=Stephen J.|last23=Van Valkenburgh|first23=Blaire|last24=Wayne|first24=Robert K.|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015CBio...25.2158K }}</ref> Some authors have opined that Anubis is more probably modeled after a [[fox]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Osborn |first1=D. |last2=Helmy |first2=I. |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryland05osbo/page/366/mode/2up?q=anubis |title=The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai) |year=1980|publisher=Field Museum of Natural History |location=Chicago |chapter=Canis aureus lupaster (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)|quote=We are inclined to believe that Anubis was a fox rather than a jackal, because all of the statuary and heiroglyphs of Anubis are of an animal with the tail of a fox.|page=367}}</ref> or [[Ethiopian wolf]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clutton-Brock |first1=J. |url=https://www.google.it/books/edition/Carnivore_Behavior_Ecology_and_Evolution/ptKaDwAAQBAJ?hl=it&gbpv=1&dq=anubis+simien&pg=PA384&printsec=frontcover |title=Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution |year=1996|publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |chapter=Competitors, Companions, Status Symbols, or Pests: A Review of Human Associations with Other Carnivores|quote=To me, the head of the typical Anubis looks very like the head of a Simien jackal, with its long, thin snout and large ears. It does not seem improbable that this canid was known to the Egyptians, and because it was doglike but exotic it became especially revered.|page=348}}</ref> Nevertheless, ancient Greek texts about Anubis consistently refer to the deity as having the head of a dog rather than that of any wild canid, and there is still uncertainty as to what species represents Anubis. Therefore the Name and History section uses the names the original sources used but in quotation marks.}} over a ''[[Hotep|ḥtp]]'' sign:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero>

Anubis' name ''jnpw'' was possibly pronounced {{IPA|[aˈna.pʰa(w)]}}, based on Coptic ''Anoup'' and the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] transcription {{Transliteration|akk-x-midbabyl|{{angbr|a-na-pa}}}} ({{lang|akk-x-midbabyl|{{cuneiform|10|𒀀𒈾𒉺}}}}) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "[[Reanap]]a" that appears in [[Amarna letters|Amarna letter]] EA 315.{{sfn|Conder|1894|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC&pg=PA85 85]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|title=CDLI-Archival View|website=cdli.ucla.edu|access-date=2017-09-20|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921002124/http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P270941|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this transcription may also be interpreted as ''rˁ-nfr'', a name similar to that of Prince [[Ranefer]] of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]].

==History==
In Egypt's [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic period]] ({{Circa|3100|2686 BC}}), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "[[African golden wolf|jackal]]" head and body.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=262}} A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of [[Hor-Aha]], [[Djer]], and other pharaohs of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|pp=280–81}} Since [[Predynastic Egypt]], when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh.{{sfnm|Wilkinson|1999|1p=262 (burials in shallow graves in Predynastic Egypt)|Freeman|1997|2p=91 (rest of the information)}} In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation."{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=262 ("fighting like with like" and "by jackals and other wild dogs")}}

In the [[Old Kingdom]], Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2000–1700 BC).{{sfn|Freeman|1997|p=91}} In the [[History of Roman Egypt|Roman era]], which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=166–67}}

The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of [[Ra]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} In the [[Coffin Texts]], which were written in the [[First Intermediate Period]] (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess [[Hesat]] or the cat-headed [[Bastet]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and [[Nephthys]].{{Sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.<ref>Wilfong,Terry G.(2015), ''Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt''. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.</ref> The Greek [[Plutarch]] (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife [[Isis]]:{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=146}}

{{blockquote|source=|For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys – she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear of [[Set (deity)|Set]]; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.|author=}}
[[George Hart (Egyptologist)|George Hart]] sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the [[Osiris myth|Osirian pantheon]]."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} An Egyptian papyrus from the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]] (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} In [[Nubia]], Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.<ref name="Lévai 2007"/>

[[File:Sousse_mosaic_calendar_November.JPG|thumb|[[Hermanubis]] in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia.]]
In the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]].{{sfn|Peacock|2000|pp=437–38 (Hellenistic kingdom)}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English |title=Hermanubis {{pipe}} English {{pipe}} Dictionary & Translation by Babylon |publisher=Babylon.com |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194619/http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English |url-status=dead }}</ref> The two gods were considered similar because they both [[psychopomp|guided souls]] to the afterlife.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|p=166}} The center of this [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/ [[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]], there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].

Although the Greeks and [[Ancient Romans|Romans]] typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with [[Sirius]] in the heavens and [[Cerberus]] and Hades in the underworld.{{sfn|Hoerber|1963|p=269 (for Cerberus and Hades)}} In his dialogues, [[Plato]] often has [[Socrates]] utter oaths "by the dog" ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''kai me ton kuna''), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.<ref>E.g., ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'', 482b ({{harvnb|Blackwood|Crossett|Long|1962|p=318}}), or ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'', 399e, 567e, 592a ({{harvnb|Hoerber|1963|p=268}}).</ref>

==Roles==

===Embalmer===
[[File:Anubis attending the mummy of Sennedjem.jpg|thumb|Anubis attending the [[mummy]] of the deceased.|upright=1]]
As ''jmy-wt'' (Imiut or the [[Imiut fetish]]) "He who is in the place of [[embalming]]", Anubis was associated with [[mummification]]. He was also called ''ḫnty zḥ-nṯr'' "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber.{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1pp=23–24|Wilkinson|2003|2pp=188–90}}<ref name=":0" />

In the [[Osiris myth]], Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris.{{sfn|Freeman|1997|p=91}} Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris's organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' often show a wolf-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy.

===Protector of tombs===
[[File:Opening of the mouth ceremony (cropped).jpg |thumb|The [[Opening of the Mouth]] ceremony being performed on a mummy before the tomb. Anubis attending the [[mummy]] of the deceased. Extract from the Papyrus of [[Hunefer]], a [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|19th-Dynasty]] Book of the Dead (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 BC)]]

Anubis was a protector of [[grave]]s and [[cemeteries]]. Several epithets attached to his name in [[Ancient Egyptian literature|Egyptian texts and inscriptions]] referred to that role. ''[[Khenti-Amentiu|Khenty-Amentiu]]'', which means "foremost of the westerners" and was also the name of a different [[Khenti-Amentiu|canine funerary god]], alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=23}} He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as ''tpy-ḏw.f'' (Tepy-djuef) "He who is upon his mountain" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) and ''nb-t3-ḏsr'' (Neb-ta-djeser) "Lord of the sacred land", which designates him as a god of the desert [[necropolis]].{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1pp=23–24|Wilkinson|2003|2pp=188–90}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bqZBAAAQBAJ&q=tpy%20Dw%20f&pg=PA262|title=Community and Identity in Ancient Egypt: The Old Kingdom Cemetery at Qubbet el-Hawa|last=Vischak|first=Deborah|date=2014-10-27|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107027602|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Jumilhac papyrus]] recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a [[leopard]]. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he [[human branding|branded]] Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then [[flaying|flayed]] Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the [[necropolis|tombs of the dead]].{{sfn|Armour|2001}} Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.{{sfn|Zandee|1960|p=255}}

Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Gods of Ancient Egypt – Anubis|url=http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm|publisher=touregypt.net|access-date=29 June 2014|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907052820/http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Guide of souls===
[[File:BD Hunefer cropped 1.jpg|thumb|The "weighing of the heart," from the book of the dead of [[Hunefer]]. Anubis is portrayed as guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of the [[ibis]]-headed [[Thoth]].|left]]

By the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|late pharaonic era]] (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the [[Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife|afterlife]].{{sfnm|Kinsley|1989|1p=178|Riggs|2005|2p=166 ("The motif of Anubis, or less frequently Hathor, leading the deceased to the afterlife was well-established in Egyptian art and thought by the end of the pharaonic era.")}} Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed [[Hathor]], Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=127 and 166}} Greek writers from the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]] of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "[[psychopomp]]", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god [[Hermes]], who also played that role in [[ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]].{{sfn|Riggs|2005|p=166}} [[Funerary art#Ancient Egypt and Nubia|Funerary art]] from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=127–28 and 166–67}}

===Weigher of hearts===
One of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales."{{sfn|Faulkner|Andrews|Wasserman|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=La9K8fp-BcMC&dq=anubis+scales&pg=PA155 155]}} The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'', shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the [[underworld]], known as ''[[Duat]]''). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against [[Maat|''ma'at'']], who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by [[Ammit]], and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Museum Explorer / Death in Ancient Egypt&nbsp;– Weighing the heart|publisher=[[British Museum]]|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-date=11 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011154408/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/book_of_the_dead_of_ani.aspx|title=Gods of Ancient Egypt: Anubis|publisher=Britishmuseum.org|access-date=15 June 2012|archive-date=31 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031115200/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/book_of_the_dead_of_ani.aspx|url-status=live}}<!-- Bot generated title --></ref>

==Portrayal in art==
Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in [[Art of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian art]].{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}} He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]].<ref name=":1" /> The god is typically treating a king's corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at the [[Weighing of the Heart|Weighing of the Heart of the Soul]] in the Hall of Two Truths.<ref name=":2" /> One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma'at's white truth feather.<ref name=":1" />

[[File:Valle de los Reyes 1999 04.jpg|thumb|Jackal head of Anubis in ([[KV35]]) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings.]]

In the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|early dynastic period]], he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=263}} Anubis's distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} It represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with [[natron]] and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} Being the color of the fertile [[silt]] of the [[Nile|River Nile]], to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1p=22|Freeman|1997|2p=91}} In the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |title=Ancient Egypt: the Mythology&nbsp;– Anubis |publisher=Egyptianmyths.net |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217043136/http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[African wolf|African jackal]] was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis.<ref>{{cite book |author=Remler, P. |title=Egyptian Mythology, A to Z |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=978-1438131801 |location= |page=99 |chapter= |chapter-url=}}</ref> An extremely rare depiction of him in [[anthropomorphism|fully human form]] was found in a chapel of [[Ramesses II]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}}<ref name="AE.net">{{cite web|title=Gods and Religion in Ancient Egypt&nbsp;– Anubis |url=http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021227200957/http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 December 2002 |access-date=23 June 2012 }}</ref>

Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a ''nḫ3ḫ3'' "[[crook and flail|flail]]" in the crook of his arm.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net"/> Another of Anubis's attributes was the ''jmy-wt'' or [[imiut fetish]], named for his role in embalming.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=281}} In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person's mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the [[nine bows]] that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|pp=188–90}}

<gallery widths="170" heights="170" class="center">
File:Anubis, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 20220618 1030 6992.jpg|Statue of Anubis
File:KV17, the tomb of Pharaoh Seti I of the Nineteenth Dynasty, Valley of the Kings, Egypt (49845804653).jpg|Wall relief of Anubis in ([[KV17]]) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings
File:ThebanTomb335.png|alt=Fresco of a mummy lying on a bier. Women stand at the head and foot of the bier, while a winged woman kneels in the register above|[[Isis]], left, and [[Nephthys]] stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC
File:Hermitage hall 100 - Egyptian hall 46.jpg|Anubis receiving offerings, [[hieroglyph]] name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from [[Saqqara]] (Egypt)
File:Tutankhamun jackal.jpg|The ''[[Anubis Shrine]]''; 1336–1327&nbsp;BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52&nbsp;m; from the [[Valley of the Kings]]; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)
File:Anubis, Anzio, Villa Pamphili, 1st-2nd century AD, Pario marble - Museo Gregoriano Egizio - Vatican Museums - DSC00818.jpg|Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from [[Rome]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Price |title=Ancient Egypt - Pocket Museum |date=2018 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-51984-4 |page=266 |language=en}}</ref>
File:Casa degli Amorini Dorati. Fresco. 09.JPG|Anubis, [[Harpocrates]], [[Isis]] and [[Serapis]], antique fresco in [[Pompeii]], [[Italy]]
File:Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis MET 90.6.128 01.jpg|Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis
File:The King with Anubis, Tomb of Haremhab MET DP234736.jpg|The king with Anubis, from the [[KV57|tomb of Horemheb]]; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Anubis Amulet MET DP109371.jpg|Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Recumbent Anubis MET DP228716.jpg|Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1&nbsp;cm, length: 64&nbsp;cm, width: 16.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Statuette of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg|Statuette of Anubis; 332–30&nbsp;BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

==Worship==
Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures.<ref name=":1" /> The [[Greeks]] linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as [[Hermanubis]]. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.<ref name=":1" />

Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> His cult center was at [[Cynopolis]] in [[Upper Egypt]] but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.<ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* [[Abatur]], Mandaean [[uthra]] who weighs the souls of the dead to determine their fates
* {{section link|Animal mummy|Miscellaneous animals}}
* [[Anput]]
* ''[[Anubias]]''
* [[Bhairava]]
* [[Hades]]

==References==
[[File:Golden wolf 2.jpg|thumb|The [[African wolf]] was depicted as Anubis]]

===Informational notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation|last1=Armour|first1=Robert A.|title=Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt|location=Cairo, Egypt|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2001}}
* {{citation|last1=Blackwood|first1=Russell|last2=Crossett|first2=John|last3=Long|first3=Herbert|year=1962|title=Gorgias 482b|journal=The Classical Journal|volume=57|issue=7|pages=318–19|jstor=3295283|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Conder|first=Claude Reignier (trans.)|author-link=Claude Reignier Conder|year=1894|orig-year=1893|title=The Tell Amarna Tablets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC|location=London|publisher=Published for the Committee of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]] by A.P. Watt|postscript=.|edition=Second|isbn=978-1-4147-0156-1}}
* {{citation |last1=Coulter|first1=Charles Russell|last2=Turner|first2=Patricia|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |location=Jefferson (NC) and London|publisher= McFarland |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7864-0317-2 |postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last1=Faulkner|first1=Raymond O.|title=The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day|year=2008|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-0-8118-6489-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=La9K8fp-BcMC|first2=Carol|last2=Andrews |first3=James|last3=Wasserman|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Fischer|first=Henry George|year=1968|title=Dendera in the Third Millennium B. C., Down to the Theban Domination of Upper Egypt|location=London|publisher=J.J. Augustin|postscript=.|title-link=Dendera Temple complex}}
* {{citation|last=Freeman|first=Charles|year=1997|title=The Legacy of Ancient Egypt|location=New York|publisher=Facts on File|isbn=978-0-816-03656-1|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Gryglewski|first=Ryszard W.|year=2002|title=Medical and Religious Aspects of Mummification in Ancient Egypt|url=http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/bazhum/element/bwmeta1.element.dl-catalog-fc7b5edc-78d2-450b-a88d-c42557950ea9/c/Organon-r2002-t31-s128-148.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/bazhum/element/bwmeta1.element.dl-catalog-fc7b5edc-78d2-450b-a88d-c42557950ea9/c/Organon-r2002-t31-s128-148.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Organon|volume=31|issue=31|pages=128–48|pmid=15017968|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Hart|first=George|year=1986|title=A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses|location=London|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=978-0-415-34495-1|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Hoerber|first=Robert G.|year=1963|title=The Socratic Oath 'By the Dog'|journal=The Classical Journal|volume=58|issue=6|pages=268–69|jstor=3293989|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Johnston|first=Sarah Iles (general ed.)|year=2004|title=Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Belknap Press|isbn=978-0-674-01517-3|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Kinsley|first=David|year=1989|title=The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West|location=Albany (NY)|publisher=[[State University of New York]] Press|isbn=978-0-88706-835-5|type=paperback}}
* {{citation|last=Lapp|first=Günther|year=1986|title=Die Opferformel des Alten Reiches: unter Berücksichtigung einiger späterer Formen|trans-title=The offering formula of the Old Kingdom: considering a few later forms|location=Mainz am Rhein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e1crAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Zabern|isbn=978-3805308724|postscript=.}}
* {{citation|last=Leprohon|first=Ronald J.|year=1990|title=The Offering Formula in the First Intermediate Period|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=76|pages=163–64|jstor=3822017|postscript=.|doi=10.1177/030751339007600115|s2cid=192258122}}
* {{citation|last=Peacock|first=David|year=2000|chapter=The Roman Period|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|editor-link=Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=092jP1lBhtoC&q=The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt|isbn=978-0-19-815034-3|postscript=.|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw}}
* {{citation|author-link=Christina Riggs|last=Riggs|first=Christina|year=2005|title=The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity, and Funerary Religion|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{citation|last=Wilkinson|first=Richard H.|title=The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|year=2003|isbn=978-0-500-05120-7|postscript=.|url=https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0}}
* {{citation|last=Wilkinson|first=Toby A. H.|year=1999|title=Early Dynastic Egypt|location=London|publisher=Routledge}}
* {{citation|last=Zandee|first=Jan|title=Death as an Enemy: According to Ancient Egyptian Conceptions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA225|year=1960|publisher=Brill Archive|id=GGKEY:A7N6PJCAF5Q}}
{{Refend}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book|last=Duquesne |first=Terence |title=The Jackal Divinities of Egypt I |year=2005 |publisher=Darengo Publications |isbn=978-1-871266-24-5 }}
* {{cite book |author1-last=El-Sadeek |author1-first=Wafaa |author2-last=Abdel Razek |author2-first=Sabah |title=Anubis, Upwawet, and Other Deities: Personal Worship and Official Religion in Ancient Egypt |year=2007 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-437-231-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Grenier |first=J.-C. |title=Anubis alexandrin et romain |language=fr |year=1977 |publisher=E. J. Brill |isbn=978-90-04-04917-8 }}

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*{{wiktionary-inline|Anubis}}

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[[Category:Anubis| ]]
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