Editing Apocynum cannabinum

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2022}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Apocynum-cannibinum 8973014557 o 2.jpg
| image_upright = 1.1
| image_alt = photo of an Apocynum cannabinum plant
| image_caption = ''Apocynum cannabinum'' in flower
| status = G5
| status_system = TNC
| status_ref = <ref name=natserv/>
| genus = Apocynum
| species = cannabinum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| synonyms =
{{Collapsible list | title = [[Synonym (taxonomy)#Botany|Homotypic synonyms]]
 | 1 = {{Species list
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. typicum | [[Augusto Béguinot|Bég.]] & [[Nikola Belosersky|Belosersky]]
 | Cynopaema cannabinum | ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Joël Lunell|Lunell]]
 }}
}}
{{Collapsible list | title = [[Synonym (taxonomy)#Botany|Heterotypic synonyms]]
 | 1 = {{Species list
 | Apocynum album | [[Edward Lee Greene|Greene]]
 | Apocynum angustifolium | [[Elmer Ottis Wooton|Wooton]]
 | Apocynum arenarium | Greene
 | Apocynum bebbianum | Greene
 | Apocynum bolanderi | Greene
 | Apocynum breweri | Greene
 | Apocynum canadense | [[John Shecut|Shecut]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. album | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. angustifolium | [[Noel Herman Holmgren|N.H.Holmgren]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum f. arenarium | (Greene) [[Joseph Robert Bernard Boivin|B.Boivin]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. bolanderi | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum subsp. cordigerum | (Greene) [[Á.Löve]] & [[D.Löve]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. estellinum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. floribundum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. glaberrimum | [[Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle|A.DC.]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. greeneanum | (Bég. & Belosersky) [[Robert Everard Woodson|Woodson]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. hypericifolium | ([[William Aiton|Aiton]]) [[Asa Gray|A.Gray]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. incanum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. isophyllum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. lanceolatum | [[Elias Durand|Durand]] & [[Theodore Charles Hilgard|Hilg.]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. nemorale | ([[Gerrit Smith Miller Jr.|G.S.Mill.]]) [[Merritt Lyndon Fernald|Fernald]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. oliganthum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. palustre | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum f. pennsilvanicum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. puberulum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum cannabinum f. pubescens | ([[John Mitchell (geographer)|Mitch.]] ex [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|R.Br.]]) [[Andreas Voss (botanist)|Voss]]
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. pubescens | (Mitch. ex R.Br.) A.DC.
 | Apocynum cannabinum var. suksdorfii | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum carolinii | [[Nieuwl.]]
 | Apocynum cervinum | Greene
 | Apocynum cinereum | Nieuwl.
 | Apocynum cordigerum | Greene
 | Apocynum cuspidatum | Greene ex Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum densiflorum | Greene
 | Apocynum dictyotum | Greene
 | Apocynum dimidiatum | [[Raf.]]
 | Apocynum estellinum | Greene
 | Apocynum farwellii | Greene
 | Apocynum farwellii f. anomalum | [[Farw.]]
 | Apocynum farwellii var. glaucum | Farw.
 | Apocynum farwellii f. ternarium | Farw.
 | Apocynum farwellii f. verticillare | Farw.
 | Apocynum greeneanum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium | Aiton
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. angustifolium | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium f. arenarium | (Greene) [[F.C.Gates]]
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. cordigerum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. farwellii | (Greene) Woodson
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. intermedium | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. myrianthum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. nevadense | (Goodd.) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. oblongum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. salignum | (Greene) Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum hypericifolium var. typicum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum isophyllum | Greene
 | Apocynum ithacense | Greene
 | Apocynum laurinum | Greene
 | Apocynum littorale | Greene
 | Apocynum longifolium | Greene
 | Apocynum macounii | Greene ex Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum missouriense | Greene
 | Apocynum myrianthum | Greene
 | Apocynum nemorale | G.S.Mill.
 | Apocynum neogeum | Bég. & Belosersky
 | Apocynum nevadense | [[Goodd.]]
 | Apocynum oblongum | Greene
 | Apocynum oliganthum | Greene
 | Apocynum palustre | Greene
 | Apocynum piscatorium | Douglas ex A.DC.
 | Apocynum platyphyllum | Greene
 | Apocynum procerum | Greene
 | Apocynum pubescens | Mitch. ex R.Br.
 | Apocynum purpureum | [[Ignaz Friedrich Tausch|Tausch]]
 | Apocynum salignum | Greene
 | Apocynum sibiricum | [[Jacq.]]
 | Apocynum sibiricum f. arenarium | (Greene) Fernald
 | Apocynum sibiricum var. cordigerum | (Greene) Fernald
 | Apocynum sibiricum var. farwellii | (Greene) Woodson
 | Apocynum sibiricum var. salignum | (Greene) Fernald
 | Apocynum subuligerum | Greene
 | Apocynum suksdorfii | Greene
 | Apocynum suksdorfii var. angustifolium | (Bég. & Belosersky) Woodson
 | Apocynum suksdorfii var. typicum | Greene
 | Apocynum thermale | Greene
 | Apocynum tomentulosum | Nieuwl.
 | Apocynum venetum | A.DC.
 | Cynopaema hypericifolium | (Aiton) Lunell
 | Forsteronia pavonii | A.DC.
 }}
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=p/>
| range_map = Apca.png
| range_map_upright = 1.1
| range_map_alt = map of North America with most states and provinces shaded green
| range_map_caption = Natural range in North America<ref name=usda/>
}}
<!--No citations are required in the article lead per [[MOS:LEADCITE]], as long as the content is cited in the article body, as it should be. Do not add missing-citation tags like {{cn}} to the lead. If necessary, {{not verified in body}} can be used, or the content removed.-->

'''''Apocynum cannabinum''''' ('''dogbane''', '''amy root''', '''hemp dogbane''', '''prairie dogbane''', '''Indian hemp''', '''rheumatism root''', or '''wild cotton''')<ref name=itis/> is a [[perennial]] [[herbaceous]] plant that grows throughout much of [[North America]]—in the southern half of [[Canada]] and throughout the [[United States]]. It is [[poison]]ous to humans, dogs, cats, and horses. All parts of the plant contain toxic cardiac glycosides that can cause potetintally fatal cardiac arrhythmias if ingested. Some [[Lepidoptera]] can withstand the toxins and feed on this plant, such as the [[hummingbird moth]].

==Description==
''Apocynum cannabinum'' grows up to {{cvt|1|m}} tall. The [[plant stem|stem]]s are reddish and contain a milky [[latex]]. The [[leaves]] are [[opposite leaf|opposite]], [[simple leaf|simple]], broad, and [[lanceolate]], {{cvt|7|–|15|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long and {{cvt|3|–|5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} broad, entire, and smooth on top with white hairs on the underside. It [[flower]]s from July to August, has large [[sepal]]s, and a five-lobed white [[corolla (botany)|corolla]]. The flowers are [[Hermaphrodite (botany)|hermaphrodite]], with both male and female organs.<ref name=pfaf/>
[[File:Apocynum cannabinum 20100904b.jpg|thumb|left|''Apocynum cannabinum'' fruits and seeds]]

==Taxonomy==
===Etymology===
''Apocynum'' means "poisonous to dogs".{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} The [[specific epithet]] ''cannabinum'', and the common names hemp dogbane and Indian hemp refer to its similarity to ''[[Cannabis]]'' as a source of fiber.<ref name="wenner"/> It likely got its name from its resemblance to a European species of the same name.{{which|date=June 2019}}<ref name=heiser/> It is called '''''qéemu''''' {{IPA|sal|qǽːmu|}} in [[Nez Perce language|Nez Perce]]<ref name=qeemu/> and {{IPA|sal|taxʷɨ́s|}} in [[Sahaptin language|Sahaptin]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} The [[Maidu|Maidu Concow people]] call the plant '''''pö''''' ([[Konkow language]]).<ref name=chestnut/>

==Distribution and habitat==
''Apocynum cannabinum'' grows in open [[woodland|wooded]] areas, ditches, and hillsides. It is found in [[gravel]]ly or [[sand]]y soil, mainly near streams in [[shade (shadow)|shady]] or moist places.<ref name=pfaf/> It is native to much of [[North America]]—in the southern half of [[Canada]] and throughout the [[United States]].<ref name=usda/>

==Ecology==

[[File:Apocynum cannabinum 4.jpg|thumb|''Apocynum cannabinum'' flowers]]

The plant serves as a larval host for the snowberry clearwing (''[[Hemaris diffinis]]''),<ref name=hosts/> which is a pollinator that resembles a small hummingbird.<ref name=FS.FED.US/> It is also a host plant for the dogbane tiger moth (''[[Cycnia tenera]]'') and the [[zebra caterpillar]] (''Melanchra picta''). The larvae of ''[[Marmara apocynella]]''<ref name=hosts/> feed on the stems, making a "long whitish serpentine mine".<ref name=gracillariidae/>

==Toxicity==
It is [[poison]]ous to humans,<ref name=pfaf/> dogs, cats, and horses.<ref name=aspca/> All parts of the plant are toxic and contain [[cardiac glycoside]]s.<ref name=pfaf/> The plant is toxic both green and dried.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2018 |title=Hemp Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum) : USDA ARS |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/logan-ut/poisonous-plant-research/docs/hemp-dogbane-apocynum-cannabinum/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240711015946/https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/logan-ut/poisonous-plant-research/docs/hemp-dogbane-apocynum-cannabinum/ |archive-date=July 11, 2024 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.ars.usda.gov}}</ref> The stems contain a white sap capable of causing skin [[blister]]s.<ref name=ncsu/>

==Uses==
===Fiber===
Much like flax and hemp, ''Apocynum cannabinum'' contains long fibers in the stems, known as bast fibers, which can be extracted and used to create textiles. The fibers are very fine and strong, with a silky texture, and easier to process than hemp.<ref name="wenner"/> The stalks of this plant have been used as a source of fiber by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]<ref name=coville/> to make [[Bow and arrow|bows]], [[Bow drill|fire-bows]], [[Net (device)|nets]], [[tie down straps|tie-down straps]], hunting nets, fishing lines, bags,<ref name=kalm/> and clothing.<ref name=heiser/> According to Craig Bates of the Yosemite Museum, five stalks of the plant are needed to make one foot of cordage. A large bag used for storing roots would take one to three months to complete.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian hemp |url=https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_apca.pdf |website=plants.usda.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> The stems should be harvested in the fall, after the leaves have fallen and the stalks have turned a deep reddish-brown color. Since cutting the stalks promotes regrowth in the spring, as much as possible should be harvested. Unused stems are traditionally cleared away by burning, which causes the plant to grow back taller and straighter in spring.

===Food===
The [[seeds]] have an edible use as a meal (raw or cooked) when ground into a powder.<ref name=pfaf/>

===Chewing gum===
The plant's latex sap can be squeezed from the plant and allowed to stand overnight to harden into a white [[natural gum|gum]] which can be used (sometimes mixed with clean [[clay]]) as [[chewing gum]].<ref name=pfaf/>

===Phytoremediation===
''Apocynum cannabinum'' can be used to sequester [[lead]] in its [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] by taking it up from the soil through its roots. This process, called [[phytoremediation]], could help clean sites contaminated with lead.<ref name=lasat/>

===Medicinal===
[[File:Apocynum cannabinum 7.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Apocynum cannabinum'' showing sap from a broken leaf]]
It is used in [[herbal medicine]] to treat [[fever]] and to slow the pulse.<ref name=felter/> ''Apocynum cannabinum'' has been employed by various Native American tribes to treat a wide variety of complaints including [[rheumatism]], [[cough]]s, [[poxvirus|pox]], [[whooping cough]], [[asthma]], [[Human parasite|internal parasites]], [[diarrhea]], and to increase [[lactation]].<ref name=pfaf/> The root has been used as a tonic, [[cardiotonic]], [[diaphoretic]], [[diuretic]], an [[emetic]] (to induce [[vomiting]]), and an [[expectorant]].<ref name=felter/><ref name=pfaf/> It is harvested in the [[autumn]] and dried for later use. The fresh root is medicinally the most active part. A weak [[herbal tea|tea]] made from the dried root has been used for [[cardiac disease]]s and as a [[vermifuge]] (an agent that expels [[parasitic worms]]). The milky sap is a [[folk remedy]] for [[genital warts]].<ref name=pfaf/>
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=chestnut>{{cite journal | last1 = Chesnut | first1 = V.K. | title = Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California | journal = Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium | year = 1902 | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 295–408 (p. 407) | lccn = 08010527 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vLkUAAAAYAAJ }}</ref>

<ref name=coville>{{ cite journal | last1 = Coville | first1 = F.V. | year = 1897 | title = Notes on the plants used by the Klamath Indians of Oregon | journal = Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 87–108 (p. 103) | url = http://soda.sou.edu/awdata/020612a1.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180729230848/https://soda.sou.edu/awdata/020612a1.pdf | archive-date = 29 July 2018 | access-date = 5 November 2022}}</ref>

<ref name=FS.FED.US>{{cite web |title=Hummingbird Moth (''Hemaris'' spp.) |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/hummingbird_moth.shtml |access-date=27 July 2017 | url-status=dead |archive-date= 30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630182146/https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/hummingbird_moth.shtml}}</ref>

<ref name=felter>{{cite book |last=Felter |first=Harvey |date=1922 |title=The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics |url=http://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/felter/apocynum-cann.html |publisher=Eclectic Medical Publications |isbn=1888483032 }}</ref>

<ref name=gracillariidae>
{{Cite web
| last1        = De Prins | first1 = J.
| last2        = De Prins | first2 = W.
| date         = 2022
| title        = ''Marmara apocynella'' Braun, 1915
| website      = Global Taxonomic Database of Gracillariidae (Lepidoptera)
| url          = https://www.gracillariidae.net/species/show/1860
| url-status   = live
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20221105101002/https://www.gracillariidae.net/species/show/1860
| archive-date = 5 November 2022
| access-date  = 5 November 2022
}}
</ref>

<ref name=heiser>{{cite book | last = Heiser | first = C.B. | title = Weeds in My Garden: Observations on Some Misunderstood Plants | year = 2003 | publisher = Timber Press | location = Portland, OR | page = 50 | isbn = 0-88192-562-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&pg=PA50 }}</ref>

<ref name=hosts>{{cite journal |title = ''Apocynum cannabinum'' search on HOSTS – The Hostplants and Caterpillars Database at the Natural History Museum |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/hostplants/search/list.dsml?searchPageURL=index.dsml&Familyqtype=starts+with&Family=&PFamilyqtype=starts+with&PFamily=&Genusqtype=starts+with&Genus=&PGenusqtype=starts+with&PGenus=apocynum&Speciesqtype=starts+with&Species=&PSpeciesqtype=starts+with&PSpecies=cannabinum&Country=&sort=Family |website=nhm.ac.uk | date=2023 | doi=10.5519/havt50xw |access-date = 5 November 2022 | last1=Robinson | first1=Gaden S. | last2=Ackery | first2=Phillip R. | last3=Kitching | first3=Ian | last4=Beccaloni | first4=George W. | last5=Hernández | first5=Luis M. }}</ref>

<ref name=itis>{{ITIS|id=30157 |taxon=Apocynum cannabinum}}</ref>

<ref name=kalm>{{cite book |last=Kalm |first=Pehr |author-link=Pehr Kalm
| title=Travels into North America: containing its natural history, and a circumstantial account of its plantations and agriculture in general, with the civil, ecclesiastical and commercial state of the country, the manners of the inhabitants, and several curious and important remarks on various subjects |publisher=T. Lowndes |year=1772|location=London |translator=Johann Reinhold Forster |page=[https://archive.org/details/travelsintonorth01kalm_3/page/103/mode/1up 103] |language=en|oclc=1083889360 |isbn=9780665515002 }}</ref>

<ref name=lasat>{{cite journal |last1=Lasat |first1=M.M. 
| title=Phytoextraction of metals from contaminated soil: a review of plant/soil/metal interaction and assessment of pertinent agronomic issues 
| journal=Journal of Hazardous Substance Research |date=2000 |volume=2 |issue=5 | page=11 |url=https://engg.k-state.edu/hsrc/JHSR/vol2no5.pdf |access-date=31 October 2022}}</ref>

<ref name=natserv>{{Cite web
| last1        = NatureServe | author-link1 = NatureServe
| date         = 3 November 2022
| title        = ''Apocynum cannabinum'' 
| url          = https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.152220/
| website      = explorer.natureserve.org
| location     = Arlington, Virginia
| language     = en
| access-date  = 5 November 2022
}}</ref>

<ref name=pfaf>
{{PFAF
| date         = 2015
| url-status   = live
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20150104171652/https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Apocynum+cannabinum
| archive-date = 4 January 2015
| access-date  = 4 January 2015
}}
</ref>

<ref name=p>
{{Cite POWO
| id          = 16527-2
| title       = ''Apocynum cannabinum'' L.
| date        = 2022
| access-date = 5 November 2022
}}
</ref>

<ref name=qeemu>
{{Cite journal
| last1        = Sammaripa | first1 = Stella
| last2        = Arques    | first2 = Sylvie
| last3        = Palacios  | first3 = Sherry
| last4        = Peacock   | first4 = Melissa
| date         = December 2021
| title        = Qeemu revitalization: a Nez Perces case study (Nez Perce Nation, ID, USA) 
| url          = https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AGUFMSY45D0805S/abstract
| journal      = AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
| volume = 2021
| publisher    = AGU Fall Meeting 2021
| location     = New Orleans
| url-status   = live
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20221105120526/https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AGUFMSY45D0805S/abstract
| archive-date = 5 November 2022
| bibcode      = 2021AGUFMSY45D0805S
}}
</ref>

<ref name="wenner">
{{cite web 
|last1 = Wenner 
|first1 = Nicholas 
|title = Native Plants for Textiles: 3 Bast Fibers to Know Beyond Hemp and Flax 
|url = https://fibershed.org/2020/02/11/native-plants-for-textiles-3-bast-fibers-to-know-beyond-hemp-and-flax/ 
|website = fibershed.org
|date = 11 February 2020 
}}
</ref>

<ref name=usda>
{{Cite PLANTS
| id          = APCA
| taxon       = Apocynum cannabinum
| date        = 2014
| access-date = 29 July 2016
}}
</ref>

<ref name=ncsu>
{{Cite web
| title        = ''Apocynum cannabinum''
| url          = https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/apocynum-cannabinum/
| website      = North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
| url-status   = live
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20221105134036/https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/apocynum-cannabinum/
| archive-date = 5 November 2022
| access-date  = 5 November 2022
}}
</ref>

<ref name=aspca>
{{cite web | title=Dogbane Hemp | website=[[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] | url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/dogbane-hemp | access-date=13 June 2021}}
</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
{{Portal|Plants}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last1=Blanchan |first1=Neltje | author-link=Neltje Blanchan | title=[[Wild Flowers: An Aid to Knowledge of our Wild Flowers and their Insect Visitors]] | year=2002 | publisher=[[Project Gutenberg|Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation]]}}
* Davis, A.; Renner, K.; Sprague, C.; Dyer, L.; Mutch, D. (2005) "Integrated Weed Management: One Year's Seeding." ''Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-2931''. East Lansing, Michigan. Accession Number LTER62246.
* {{cite web | last=Greenlee | first=Jack | title=Spreading Dogbane | website=[[United States Forest Service]] | url=http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/apocynum_androsaemifolium.shtml | access-date=13 June 2021}}
* [http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Apocynum+cannabinum Native American Ethnobotany DB: ''Apocynum cannabinum'']
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiversity-bc|Apocynum cannabinum}}
* [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?Apocynum+cannabinum Jepson Manual Treatment – ''Apocynum cannabinum'']
* {{CalPhotos|Apocynum|cannabinum}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2598218}}

[[Category:Apocyneae]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Northern America]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Native American medicine]]
[[Category:Butterfly food plants]]
[[Category:Phytoremediation plants]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]