Editing Arabization

{{Short description|Process of growing Arab influence on non-Arab populations}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
[[File:First Umayyad gold dinar, Caliph Abd al-Malik, 695 CE (cropped).jpg|thumb|262x262px|Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] ([[Reign|r.]] 685–705) established [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]] as the sole official language of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in 686 CE.]]
{{Arab culture}} 
'''Arabization''' or '''Arabicization''' ({{langx|ar|تعريب|translit=taʻrīb}}) is a [[sociology|sociological]] process of cultural change in which a non-Arab society becomes [[Arabs|Arab]], meaning it either directly adopts or becomes strongly influenced by the [[Arabic|Arabic language]], [[Arab culture|culture]], [[Arabic literature|literature]], [[Islamic art|art]], [[Arabic music|music]], and [[Arab identity|ethnic identity]] as well as other [[Sociocultural system|socio-cultural]] factors. It is a specific form of [[cultural assimilation]] that often includes a [[language shift]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A95863/datastream/OBJ/view/The_Crossroads_of_Identity__Linguistic_Shift_and_the_Politics_of_Identity_in_Southwest_Asia_and_North_Africa.pdf|title=The Crossroads of Identity: Linguistic Shift and the Politics of Identity in Southwest Asia and North Africa|date=December 2021|author=Marium Abboud Houraney}}</ref> The term applies not only to cultures, but also to individuals, as they acclimate to Arab culture and become "Arabized". Arabization took place after the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquest of the Middle East and North Africa]], as well as during the more recent [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] policies toward non-Arabic speaking minorities in modern [[Arab world|Arab states]], such as [[Algeria]],<ref name="dwight492">{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Dwight F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifcGBwAAQBAJ |title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture |date=2 April 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89807-2}}</ref> [[Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq|Iraq]],<ref name="books.google.com">''Iraq, Claims in Conflict: Reversing Ethnic Cleansing in Northern Iraq''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=S36CEfg_hp4C&dq=forced+arabization+iraq&pg=PA7]</ref> [[Syria]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Alexander K. McKeever |date=2021 |title=Between Kurdistan and Damascus: Kurdish Nationalism and Arab State Formation in Syria |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5267&context=gc_etds}}</ref> [[Egypt]],<ref name="Mneimneh2">{{Cite web |author=Hassan Mneimneh |date=June 2017 |title=Arabs, Kurds, and Amazigh: The Quest for Nationalist Fulfillment, Old and New |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/arabs-kurds-and-amazigh-quest-nationalist-fulfillment-old-and-new}}</ref> [[Bahrain]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Banafsheh Keynoush |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcLtCwAAQBAJ&dq=arabization+bahrain&pg=PA96 |title=Saudi Arabia and Iran: Friends Or Foes? |date=2016 |isbn=9781137589392 |pages=96| publisher=Springer }}</ref> and [[Sudan]].<ref name="dwight492" />

After the [[Spread of Islam|rise of Islam]] in the [[Hejaz]] and subsequent [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslims conquests]], Arab culture and language spread outside the [[Arabian Peninsula]] through trade and intermarriages between members of the non-Arab local population and the peninsular Arabs. The Arabic language began to serve as a [[lingua franca]] in these areas and [[Varieties of Arabic|various dialects]] were formed. This process was accelerated by the migration of various [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab tribes]] outside of Arabia, such as the [[Arab migrations to the Maghreb]] and [[Arab migrations to the Levant|the Levant]].

The influence of Arabic has been profound in many other countries whose cultures have been influenced by Islam. Arabic was a [[Influence of Arabic on other languages|major source of vocabulary for various languages]]. This process reached its zenith between the 10th and 14th centuries, widely considered to be the high point of Arab culture, during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].

==Early Arab expansion in the Near East==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2016}}

After [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Nabataean Kingdom]] emerged and ruled a region extending from north of Arabia to the south of Syria. The Nabataeans originated from the Arabian peninsula, who came under the influence of the earlier [[Aramaic]] culture, the neighbouring Hebrew culture of the Hasmonean kingdom, as well as the Hellenistic cultures in the region (especially with the [[Christianization]] of [[Nabatean]]s in the 3rd and 4th centuries). The pre-modern Arabic language was created by Nabateans, who developed the [[Nabataean alphabet]] which became the basis of modern [[Arabic script]]. The [[Nabataean Arabic|Nabataean language]], under heavy Arab influence, amalgamated into the [[Arabic language]].

The Arab [[Ghassanids]] were the last major non-Islamic Semitic migration northward out of [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]] in late classic era. They were [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox Christian]], and clients of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They arrived in [[Theodorias (province)|Byzantine Syria]] which had a largely [[Aramean]] population. They initially settled in the [[Hauran]] region, eventually spreading to the entire [[Levant]] (modern Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan), briefly securing governorship of parts of Syria and Transjordan away from the [[Nabataeans]].

The Arab [[Lakhmid kingdom|Lakhmid Kingdom]] was founded by the Lakhum tribe that emigrated from [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]] in the 2nd century and ruled by the [[Banu Lakhm]], hence the name given it. They adopted the religion of the [[Church of the East]], founded in [[Assyria]]/[[Asōristān]], opposed to the Ghassanids Greek Orthodox Christianity, and were clients of the [[Sasanian Empire]].

The Byzantines and Sasanians used the Ghassanids and Lakhmids to fight proxy wars in Arabia against each other.

==History of Arabization==
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Arab conquests 622 CE to 750 CE|292x292px]]

===Arabization during the early Caliphate===
{{main|Early Muslim conquests}}

The most significant wave of "Arabization" in history followed the [[early Muslim conquests]] of Muhammad and the subsequent [[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphates]]. These Arab empires were the first to grow well beyond the Arabian Peninsula, eventually reaching as far as [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] in the West and Central Asia to the East, covering {{convert|11100000|km2|sqmi|-5|abbr=on}},<ref name="Taagepera496">{{cite journal|author=Rein Taagepera|author-link=Rein Taagepera|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=496|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|jstor=2600793|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|url-access=subscription}}</ref> one of the [[List of largest empires|largest imperial expanses in history]].

===Southern Arabia===
{{Further|Southern Arabia}}

South Arabia is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir, which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and the Dhofar of present-day Oman.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

[[Old South Arabian]] was driven to extinction by the Islamic expansion, being replaced by [[Classical Arabic]] which is written with the [[Arabic script]].{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} The [[South Arabian alphabet]] which was used to write it also fell out of use.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} A separate branch of [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]], the [[Modern South Arabian languages]] still survive today as spoken languages in southern of present-day Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Dhofar in present-day Oman.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

Although [[Yemen]] is traditionally held to be the homeland of the [[Qahtanite|Qahtanite Arabs]] who, according to some Arab traditions, are "pure" Arabs; however, most<ref>Nebes, Norbert, "Epigraphic South Arabian," in Uhlig, Siegbert, ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 335</ref><ref>Leonid Kogan and [[Andrey Korotayev]]: Sayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian) // Semitic Languages. London: Routledge, 1997, pp. 157-183.</ref> of the sedentary Yemeni population did not speak [[Old Arabic]] prior to the spread of [[Islam]], and spoke the extinct [[Old South Arabian|Old South Arabian languages]] instead.<ref>Nebes, Norbert, "Epigraphic South Arabian," in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 335</ref><ref>Leonid Kogan and [[Andrey Korotayev]]: Sayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian) // Semitic Languages. London: Routledge, 1997, p[. 157-183.</ref>

===Eastern and Northern Arabia===
{{Further|Eastern Arabia|Bahrani people|Dilmun civilization}}
[[File:WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg|thumb|Sassanian weaponry, 7th century]]

[[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Before the 7th century]] [[Common Era|CE]], the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of [[Arab Christians|Christian Arabs]], [[Zoroastrian]] Arabs, [[Mizrahi Jews|Jews]], and [[Aramaic]]-speaking agriculturalists.<ref name="orig">{{cite web|url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7942/1/7942_4940.PDF?+UkUDh:CyT|title=Social and political change in Bahrain since the First World War|pages=46–47|work=[[Durham University]]|year=1973}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR24|title=Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary|work=Clive Holes|year=2001|pages=XXIV-XXVI|isbn=978-90-04-10763-2|last1=Holes|first1=Clive|publisher=BRILL }}</ref><ref name="om">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8glrgh87kEC&pg=PA305|title=Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature|work=J R Smart|year=2013|page=305|isbn=978-0-7007-0411-8|last1=Smart |first1=J. R. |publisher=Psychology Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC&pg=PA98|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5|work= M. Th. Houtsma|page=98|year=1993|isbn=978-90-04-09791-9|last1=Houtsma|first1=M. Th|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> Some sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia exhibit [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] features.<ref name="per">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR29|title=Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary|work=Clive Holes|year=2001|pages=XXIX-XXX|isbn=978-90-04-10763-2|last1=Holes|first1=Clive|publisher=BRILL }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_uhvUA428fcC&pg=PA269|title=Non-Arabic Semitic elements in the Arabic dialects of Eastern Arabia|work=Clive Holes|pages=270–279|year=2002|isbn=978-3-447-04491-2|last1=Jastrow|first1=Otto|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag }}</ref> The sedentary people of ancient Bahrain were Aramaic speakers and to some degree Persian speakers, while Syriac functioned as a [[liturgical language]].<ref name="om"/>

Even within Northern Arabia, Arabization occurred to non-Arab populations such as the [[Hutaym]] in the northwestern Arabia and the [[Solluba]] in the Syrian Desert and the region of Mosul.<ref name="Levinson314">{{Harvnb|Levinson|1995|p=314}}</ref>

===The Levant===
{{See also|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab migrations to the Levant}}

Prior to the Islamic conquests, Arabs and Arabic inscriptions existed in the region; The roman emperor [[Philip the Arab]] was born in what is now [[Bosra]], Syria. The [[Emesene dynasty|Emasene dynasty]] were a Roman client dynasty of Syrian priest-kings known to have ruled by 46&nbsp;BCE from [[Al-Rastan|Arethusa]] and later from [[Emesa]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], until between 72 and 78/79 and they were of [[Arab]] origin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337 |last2=Garnsey |first2=Peter |last3=Cameron |first3=Averil |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521301992 |language=en}}; {{cite book |last1=Hornblower |first1=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754 |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |last2=Spawforth |first2=Antony |last3=Eidinow |first3=Esther |date=2012 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=9780199545568 |language=en}}; {{harvnb|Ball|2000}}; {{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Jasper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181 |title=Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134131853 |language=en}}; {{cite book |last1=Prado |first1=Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191 |title=Varian Studies Volume One: Varius |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=9781443893855 |language=en}}; {{harvnb|Birley|2002}}; {{cite book |last=Shahid |first=Irfan |title=Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs |date=1984 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |isbn=0884021157 |page=37}}; {{cite book |last1=Freisenbruch |first1=Annelise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182 |title=Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire |date=2011 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781416583059 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Icks |first=Martijn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_g-MDwAAQBAJ&dq=Emesa+phoenician&pg=PA46 |title=The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor |date=30 August 2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9780857720177 |pages=46}}</ref> The [[Safaitic]] (named after [[Al-Safa (Syria)|Al-Safa region]] in Syria) inscriptions of old Arabic existed in [[Harrat al-Sham]], the script existed in the period from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.

On the eve of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] conquest of the Levant, 634&nbsp;CE, Syria's population mainly spoke Aramaic; Greek was the official language of administration. [[#The Levant|Arabization]] and [[Islamization]] of Syria began in the 7th century, and it took several centuries for Islam, the Arab identity, and language to spread;{{sfn|al-Hassan|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FUPnSxbUREgC&pg=PA59 59]}} the Arabs of the caliphate did not attempt to spread their language or religion in the early periods of the conquest, and formed an isolated aristocracy.{{sfn|Schulze|2010|p=19}} The Arabs of the caliphate accommodated many new tribes in isolated areas to avoid conflict with the locals; caliph [[Uthman]] ordered his governor, [[Muawiyah I]], to settle the new tribes away from the original population.{{sfn|Kennedy|1992|p= 292}} Syrians who belonged to [[Monophysitism|Monophysitic]] denominations welcomed the peninsular Arabs as liberators.{{sfn|Barker|1966|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJljEXvwAoC&pg=PA244 244]}}

The [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in the eighth and ninth century sought to integrate the peoples under their authority, and the Arabization of the administration was one of the tools.{{sfn|Braida|2012|p= 183}} Arabization gained momentum with the increasing numbers of Muslim converts;{{sfn|al-Hassan|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FUPnSxbUREgC&pg=PA59 59]}} the ascendancy of Arabic as the formal language of the state prompted the cultural and linguistic assimilation of Syrian converts.{{sfn|Peters|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA191 191]}} Those who remained [[Christianity in Syria|Christian]] also became Arabized;{{sfn|Braida|2012|p= 183}} it was probably during the Abbasid period in the ninth century that Christians adopted Arabic as their first language; the first translation of the gospels into Arabic took place in this century.{{sfn|Braida|2012|p= 182}} Many historians, such as [[Claude Cahen]] and Bernard Hamilton, proposed that the Arabization of Christians was completed before the [[First Crusade]].{{sfn|Ellenblum|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oiYgyRyL97oC&pg=PA53 53]}} By the thirteenth century, Arabic language achieved dominance in the region and its speakers became Arabs.{{sfn|al-Hassan|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FUPnSxbUREgC&pg=PA59 59]}}

===Egypt===
{{See also|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}

Prior to the Islamic conquests, Arabs had been inhabiting the [[Sinai Peninsula]], the [[Eastern Desert|Eastern desert]] and [[Sharqia Governorate|eastern Delta]] for centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9xj820qg |title=The History of the Peoples of the Eastern Desert |date=2012-10-01 |isbn=978-1-931745-96-3 |language=en|last1=Barnard |first1=H. |last2=Duistermaat |first2=Kim |publisher=Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press }}</ref> These regions of Egypt collectively were known as "Arabia" to the contemporary historians and writers documenting them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Macdonald |first=Michael C. A. |title=Arabians, Arabias, and the Greeks_Contact and Perceptions |url=https://www.academia.edu/4593009 |website=Academia}}</ref> Several pre-Islamic Arab kingdoms, such as the [[Qedarites|Qedarite Kingdom]], extended into these regions. Inscriptions and other archeological remains, such as bowls bearing inscriptions identifying [[Qedarites|Qedarite]] kings and [[Nabataeans|Nabatean]] Arabic inscriptions, affirm the Arab presence in the region.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://brill.com/view/title/35887 |title=To the Madbar and Back Again: Studies in the languages, archaeology, and cultures of Arabia dedicated to Michael C.A. Macdonald |date=2017-11-20 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35761-7 |editor-last=Nehmé |editor-first=Laïla |language=en |editor-last2=Al-Jallad |editor-first2=Ahmad |editor-last3=Nehmé |editor-first3=Laïla |editor-last4=Al-Jallad |editor-first4=Ahmad |editor-last5=Nehmé |editor-first5=Laïla |editor-last6=Al-Jallad |editor-first6=Ahmad}}</ref>  Egypt was conquered from the [[Byzantine Empire|Romans]] by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in the 7th century CE. The [[Coptic language]], which was written using the [[Coptic script|Coptic variation]] of the [[Greek alphabet]], was spoken in most of Egypt prior to the Islamic conquest. Arabic, however, was already being spoken in the eastern fringes of Egypt for centuries prior to the arrival of Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vollandt |first1=Ronny |last2=Al-Jallad |first2=Ahmad |date=2020-01-01 |title=Al-Jallad. 2020. The Damascus Psalm Fragment: Middle Arabic and the Legacy of Old Ḥigāzī, w. a contribution by R. Vollandt |url=https://www.academia.edu/43189829 |journal=Oriental Institute}}</ref> By the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mameluke]] era, the Arabization of the [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] populace alongside a shift in the majority religion going from Christianity to Islam, had taken place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berkes |first=Lajos |date=2018 |title=On Arabisation and Islamisation in Early Islamic Egypt. I. Prosopographic Notes on Muslim Officials |url=https://www.academia.edu/39225280 |journal=Chronique d'Égypte |volume=93 |issue=186 |pages=415–420 |doi=10.1484/J.CDE.5.117663 |issn=0009-6067}}</ref>

===The Maghreb===
{{See also|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Arab migrations to the Maghreb}}

Neither North Africa nor the Iberian Peninsula were strangers to [[Semitic people|Semitic culture]]: the [[Phoenicians]] and later the [[Carthaginians]] dominated parts of the North African and Iberian shores for more than eight centuries until they were suppressed by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and by the following [[Vandal]] and [[Visigoth]]ic invasions, and the [[Berber people|Berber]] incursions.

From the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] in the 7th century, Arabs began to [[Arab migration to the Maghreb|migrate to the Maghreb]] in several waves. Arab migrants settled in all parts of the Maghreb, coming as peaceful newcomers who were welcomed everywhere, establishing large Arab settlements in many areas.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Elfasi |first1=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&pg=PA243 |title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century |last2=Hrbek |first2=Ivan |last3=Africa |first3=Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of |date=1988-01-01 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-101709-4 |pages=243 |language=en}}</ref> In addition to changing the population's demographics, the early migration of Arab tribes resulted in the Arabization of the native [[Berbers|Berber]] population. This initial wave contributed to the Berber adoption of [[Arab culture]]. Furthermore, the [[Arabic|Arabic language]] spread during this period and drove local [[Latin]] ([[African Romance]]) into extinction in the cities. The Arabization took place around Arab centres through the influence of Arabs in the cities and rural areas surrounding them.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Duri |first=A. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32sBxqIgcZMC&pg=PA71 |title=The Historical Formation of the Arab Nation (RLE: the Arab Nation) |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-62286-8 |pages=70–74 |language=en}}</ref>

Arab political entities in the Maghreb such as the [[Aghlabids]], [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisids]], [[Emirate of Nekor|Salihids]] and [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], were influential in encouraging Arabization by attracting Arab migrants and by promoting Arab culture. In addition, disturbances and political unrest in the [[Mashriq]] compelled the Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb in search of security and stability.<ref name=":62"/>

After establishing [[Cairo]] in 969, the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] left rule over Tunisia and eastern Algeria to the local [[Zirid dynasty]] (972–1148).<ref name="stearns">{{cite book |last1 = Stearns|first1 = Peter N.|last2 = Leonard Langer|first2 = William|title = The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea|url-access = limited|publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|year = 2001|edition = 6|pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea/page/n2476 129]–131|isbn = 978-0-395-65237-4}}</ref> In response to the Zirids later declaring independence from the Fatimids, the Fatimids dispatched large [[Bedouin]] Arab tribes, mainly the [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]], to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. The invasion of Ifriqiya by the Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab [[Bedouin]] tribe, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline.<ref name="stearns" /> The Arab historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.<ref name="islamic-dynasties">{{cite book |last = Singh|first = Nagendra Kr|title = International encyclopaedia of islamic dynasties|volume = 4: A Continuing Series|publisher = Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year = 2000|pages = 105–112|isbn = 978-81-261-0403-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |title=Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell |publisher=Galtoninstitute.org.uk |access-date=19 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527170154/http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |archive-date=27 May 2013 }}</ref>  The Fatimid caliph instructed the Bedouin tribes to rule the Maghreb instead of the Zirid emir [[Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis|Al-Mu'izz]] and told them "I have given you the Maghrib and the rule of al-Mu'izz ibn Balkīn as-Sanhājī the runaway slave. You will want for nothing." and told Al-Mu'izz "I have sent you horses and put brave men on them so that God might accomplish a matter already enacted". Sources estimated that the total number of Arab nomads who migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century was at around 1 million Arabs.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Hareir |first1=Idris El |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |last2=Mbaye |first2=Ravane |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104153-2 |pages=409 |language=en}}</ref> There were later Arab migrations to the Maghreb by [[Maqil]] and [[Beni Ḥassān|Beni Hassan]] in the 13th-15th century and by [[Al-Andalus|Andalusi]] refugees in the 15th–17th century.
[[File:Chief_of_Mascara.jpg|thumb|Banu Hilal, Emir of Mascara in western Algeria, 1856]]
The migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century had a much greater influence on the process of Arabization of the population than did the earlier migrations. It played a major role in spreading [[Bedouin Arabic]] to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the [[Sahara]].<ref name=":62"/> It also heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and spread nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=el-Hasan |first=Hasan Afif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zr2XDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Killing the Arab Spring |date=2019-05-01 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-1-62894-349-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref>

===Al-Andalus===
After the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]], under the [[Arab]] [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] Iberia (''al-Andalus'') incorporated elements of Arabic language and culture. The [[Mozarab]]s were [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[Christians]] who lived under Arab Islamic rule in [[Al-Andalus]]. Their descendants remained unconverted to [[Islam]], but did however adopt elements of Arabic language and [[Arab culture|culture]] and dress. They were mostly [[Roman Catholics]] of the [[Mozarabic Rite|Visigothic or Mozarabic Rite]]. Most of the Mozarabs were descendants of [[Hispania|Hispano]]–[[Visigoths|Gothic]] Christians and were primarily speakers of the [[Mozarabic language]] under Islamic rule. Many were also what the [[Arabist]] Mikel de Epalza calls ''"Neo-Mozarabs"'', that is [[Northern Europe]]ans who had come to the Iberian Peninsula and picked up Arabic, thereby entering the Mozarabic community.

Besides Mozarabs, another group of people in Iberia eventually came to surpass the Mozarabs both in terms of population and Arabization. These were the Muladi or [[Muwallad]]un, most of whom were descendants of local Hispano-Basques and Visigoths who converted to Islam and adopted Arabic culture, dress, and language. By the 11th century, most of the population of al-Andalus was Muladi, with large minorities of other Muslims, Mozarabs, and [[Sephardic Jews]]. It was the Muladi, together with the Berber, Arab, and other ([[Saqaliba]] and [[Zanj]]) Muslims who became collectively termed in Christian Europe as "[[Moors]]".

The [[Andalusian Arabic]] was spoken in Iberia during Islamic rule.

===Sicily, Malta, and Crete===
A similar process of Arabization and Islamization occurred in the [[Emirate of Sicily]] (''Ṣiqilliyyah'') and Malta (''Mālṭā''), and the [[Emirate of Crete]] (''Iqrīṭish'' or ''Iqrīṭiya''), during this period some segments of the populations of these islands converted to [[Islam]] and began to adopt elements of [[Arab culture|Arabic culture]], [[tradition]]s, and [[Tradition|customs]]. The Arabization process also resulted in the development of the now extinct [[Siculo-Arabic]] language, from which the modern [[Maltese language]] derives.<ref>{{citation|title=A Semitic Maltese Inventory With a Possible Siculo-Arabic Intervention.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43530372|author=Dionisius A. Agius|access-date=4 March 2025}}</ref> By contrast, the present-day [[Sicilian language]], which is an [[Italo-Dalmatian languages|Italo-Dalmatian Romance language]], retains very little Siculo-Arabic, with its influence being limited to some 300 words.<ref>{{cite book|author1= Ruffino, Giovanni|title= Sicilia|pages=18–20 |date=2001| publisher=Editori Laterza, Bari }}</ref>

===Sudan===
Contacts between Nubians and Arabs long predated the coming of Islam,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Emberling |first1=Geoff |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia |date=January 15, 2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780197521830 |pages=788}}</ref> but the Arabization of the Nile Valley was a gradual process that occurred over a period of nearly one thousand years. Arab [[nomad]]s continually wandered into the region in search of fresh pasturage, and Arab seafarers and merchants traded at [[Red Sea]] ports for spices and slaves. Intermarriage and assimilation also facilitated Arabization. Traditional genealogies trace the ancestry of the Nile valley's area of Sudan mixed population to Arab tribes that migrated into the region during this period. Even many non-Arabic-speaking groups claim descent from Arab forebears. The two most important Arabic-speaking groups to emerge in Nubia were the [[Ja'Alin|Ja'alin]] and the [[Juhaynah]].[[File:Migration of Arabs into Sudan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map showing the late medieval migration of Arabs into Sudan]] 
In the 12th century, the Arab Ja'alin tribe migrated into [[Nubia]] and [[Sudan]] and gradually occupied the regions on both banks of the [[Nile]] from [[Khartoum]] to [[Abu Hamad]]. They trace their lineage to [[Abbas ibn 'Abdul Muttalib|Abbas]], uncle of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]]. They are of Arab origin, but now of mixed blood mostly with Northern Sudanese and [[Nubians]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=103}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSDBkKgNgx8C&q=jaalin&pg=PA16|title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 17|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization)|year=1888|page=16|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref> In the 16th and 17th centuries, new Islamic kingdoms were established – the [[Funj Sultanate]] and the [[Sultanate of Darfur]], starting a long period of gradual [[Islamization]] and [[#Arabization in Sudan|Arabization]] in Sudan. These sultanates and their societies existed until the Sudan was conquered by the [[Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)|Ottoman Egyptian invasion]] in 1820, and in the case of Darfur, even until 1916.<ref>Alan Moorehead, ''The Blue Nile'', revised edition. (1972). New York: Harper and Row, p. 215</ref>

In 1846, Arab [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]], who speak [[Hejazi Arabic]], migrated from the [[Hejaz]] in present-day Saudi Arabia into what is now [[Eritrea]] and north-east Sudan, after tribal warfare had broken out in their homeland.  The Rashaida of Sudan live in close proximity with the [[Beja people]], who speak [[Bedawiyet|Bedawiye]] dialects in eastern Sudan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.madote.com/2010/02/eritrea-rashaida-people.html|title=Eritrea: The Rashaida People|publisher=Madote.com|access-date=11 December 2014}}</ref>

===The Sahel===
{{main|Baggara}}
[[Image:Baggara belt.png|thumb|right|300px|Baggara belt]]

In [[Middle Ages|medieval times]], the [[Baggara Arabs]], a grouping of Arab ethnic groups who speak [[Shuwa Arabic]] (which is one of the regional [[varieties of Arabic]] in Africa), migrated into Africa, mainly between [[Lake Chad]] and southern [[Kordofan]].

Currently, they live in a belt which stretches across [[Sudan]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[South Sudan]] and they number over six million people. Like other Arabic speaking tribes in the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sahel]], Baggara tribes have origin ancestry from the [[Juhaynah]] Arab tribes who migrated directly from the [[Arabian peninsula]] or from other parts of [[north Africa]]. {{sfn|deWaal|Flint|2006|pp=9}}

Arabic is an official language of Chad and Sudan as well as a [[national language]] in Niger, [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], and South Sudan. In addition, Arabic dialects are spoken of minorities in [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], and [[Central African Republic]].

==Arabization in modern times==
{{Further|Arab nationalism}}
[[File:Arabic speaking world.svg|thumb|Status of Arabic language map<br />{{legend|SeaGreen|Exclusive official language}}{{legend|#0053ad|One of official languages, majority}}{{legend|#41a2fc|One of official languages, minority}}]]

In the modern era, Arabization occurred due to the [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] policies toward non-Arab minorities in modern [[Arab world|Arab states]], including [[Algeria]],<ref name="dwight492"/> [[Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq|Iraq]],<ref name="books.google.com"/> [[Syria]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5267&context=gc_etds|title=Between Kurdistan and Damascus: Kurdish Nationalism and Arab State Formation in Syria|author=Alexander K. McKeever|date=2021}}</ref> [[Egypt]],<ref name="Mneimneh"/> [[Bahrain]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcLtCwAAQBAJ&dq=arabization+bahrain&pg=PA96|title=Saudi Arabia and Iran: Friends Or Foes?|author=Banafsheh Keynoush|date=2016|pages=96|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137589392}}</ref> [[Kuwait]],<ref>Language Maintenance or Shift? An Ethnographic Investigation of the Use of Farsi among Kuwaiti Ajams: A Case Study. AbdulMohsen Dashti. Arab Journal for the Humanities. Volume 22 Issue : 87. 2004.</ref> and [[Sudan]].<ref name="dwight492"/> Modern Arabization also occurred to reverse the consequences of European colonialism.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dina Al-Kassim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbpIIjZVRq0C&dq=re-arabization&pg=PA185 |title=On Pain of Speech: Fantasies of the First Order and the Literary Rant |date=2010 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520945791 |pages=185}}</ref> Arab governments often imposed policies that sought to promote the use of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and eliminate the languages of former colonizers, such as the reversing of street signs from [[French language|French]] to Arabic names in Algeria.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Phillip C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 |title=Historical Dictionary of Algeria |date=2015-05-07 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-7919-5 |pages=85 |language=en}}</ref>

===Arabization in Algeria===
The unification and pursuit of a single [[Algerian nationalism|Algerian identity]] was to be found in the Arab identity, Arabic language and religion. Ben Bella composed the Algerian constitution in October 1963, which asserted that Islam was the state religion, Arabic was the sole national and official language of the state, Algeria was an integral part of the [[Arab world]], and that Arabization was the first priority of the country to reverse French colonization.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baldauf |first1=Richard B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA64 |title=Language Planning and Policy in Africa |last2=Kaplan |first2=Robert B. |date=2007-01-01 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-84769-011-1 |pages=64 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Platteau |first=Jean-Philippe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7BriDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 |title=Islam Instrumentalized |date=2017-06-06 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15544-2 |pages=224 |language=en}}</ref> According to Abdelhamid Mehri, the decision of Arabic as an official language was the natural choice for Algerians, even though Algeria is a plurilingual nation with a minority, albeit substantial, number of Berbers within the nation, and the local variety of Arabic used in every-day life, [[Algerian Arabic]], was distinct from the official language, [[Modern Standard Arabic]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mehri |first=Abdelhamid |date=January 1972 |title=Arabic language takes back its place |work=Le Monde Diplomatique}}</ref>

Modern Arabization in Algeria took place to develop and promote Arabic into the nation's education system, government, and media in order to replace the former language that was enforced due to colonization, French.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Daoud |first=Mohamed |date=30 June 1991 |title=Arabization in Tunisia: The Tug of War |journal=Issues in Applied Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7–29 |doi=10.5070/L421005130 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Algeria had been conquered by France and even made to be part of its [[Metropolitan France|metropolitan core]] for 132 years, a significantly longer timespan compared to Morocco and Tunisia, and it was also more influenced by Europe due to the contiguity with [[Pied-Noir|French settlers in Algeria]]: both Algerian and French nationals used to live in the same towns, resulting in the cohabitation of the two populations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sirles |first=Craig A. |date=1999-01-01 |title=Politics and Arabization: the evolution of postindependence North Africa |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=137 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.1999.137.115 |issn=0165-2516 |s2cid=145218630}}</ref>

While trying to build an independent and unified nation-state after the [[Evian Accords]], the Algerian government under [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]'s rule began a policy of Arabization. Indeed, due to the lasting and deep colonization, French was the major administrative and academic language in Algeria, even more so than in neighboring countries. Since independence, [[Algerian nationalism]] was heavily influenced by [[Arab socialism]], [[Islamism]] and [[Arab nationalism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shatzmiller |first=Maya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apVov0sqrfUC&pg=PA201 |title=Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies |date=2005-04-29 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-7254-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">James McDougall. ''History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Pp. 25.</ref>

However, the process of Arabization was meant not only to promote Islam, but to fix the gap and decrease any conflicts between the different Algerian ethnic groups and promote equality through monolingualism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benrabah|first=Mohamed|date=10 August 2010|title=Language and Politics in Algeria|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|volume=10|issue=1 |pages=59–78|doi=10.1080/13537110490450773|s2cid=144307427}}</ref> In 1964 the first practical measure was the Arabization of primary education and the introduction of religious education, the state relying on Egyptian teachers – belonging to the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and therefore particularly religious<ref>Abu-Haidar, Farida. 2000. 'Arabisation in Algeria'. International Journal of Francophone Studies 3 (3): 151–163.</ref> – due to its lack of literary Arabic-speakers. In 1968, during the [[Houari Boumediene]] regime, Arabization was extended, and a law<ref>ordonnance n° 68-92 du 26 avril rendant obligatoire, pour les fonctionnaires et assimilés, la connaissance de la langue nationale (1968)</ref> tried to enforce the use of Arabic for civil servants, but again, the major role played by French was only diminished.

The whole policy was ultimately not as effective as anticipated: French has kept its importance<ref>Benrabah, Mohamed. 2007. 'Language Maintenance and Spread: French in Algeria'. International Journal of Francophone Studies 10 (1–2): 193–215</ref> and Berber opposition kept growing, contributing to the [[1988 October Riots]]. Some Berber groups, like the [[Kabyle people|Kabyles]], felt that their ancestral culture and language were threatened and the Arab identity was given more focus at the expense of their own. After the [[Algerian Civil War]], the government tried to enforce even more the use of Arabic,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie_loi-96.htm|title=Algérie: Ordonnance no 96-30 du 21 décembre 1996|website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> but the relative effect of this policy after 1998 (the limit fixed for complete Arabization) forced the heads of state to make concessions towards [[Berber languages|Berber]], recognizing it in 2002<ref>article 3bis in the 2002 constitutional revision</ref> as another national language that will be promoted. However, because of literary Arabic's symbolic advantage, as well as being a single language as opposed to the fragmented [[Berber languages]], Arabization is still a goal for the state, for example with laws on civil and administrative procedures.<ref>loi du 25 fevrier 2008 http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie_loi-diverses.htm#Loi_n°_08-09_du_25_février_2008_portant_code_de_procédure_civile_et_administrative_</ref>

===Arabization in Oman===
Despite being a nation of the Arabian Peninsula, [[Oman]] had been home to several native languages other than Arabic,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asmarttranslatorsreunion.wordpress.com/2015/11/11/the-languages-of-oman/ |title=The languages of Oman |last=Cellier |first=Catherine |date=2015| access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> of which [[Kumzari language|Kumzari]] which is the only native [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] in the Arabian Peninsula has been classified as highly endangered by the UNESCO and at risk of dying out in 50 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/06/07/kumzari-the-omani-language-on-the-verge-of-extinction |title=Kumzari, the Omani language on the verge of extinction |date=2019| access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> Before the [[1970 Omani coup d'état|takeover of Qaboos as sultan]], Arabic was only ever spoken by the inhabitants outside the village of [[Kumzar]], in mosques or with strangers, however since the introduction of Arabic-only schools in 1984, Arabic is hence now spoken at both school and village with it being mandatory in school and as TV and radio are also in Arabic meaning virtually all media the people of Kumzar are exposed to is in Arabic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/last-stand-hybrid-language-omans-seafaring-past |title=Last stand of a hybrid language from Oman's seafaring past |date=2016| access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> There has also been an internalization of outsiders' negative attitudes toward the Kumzari language to the point where some Kumzari families have begun to speak Arabic to their children at home.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3093 |title=Kumzari | access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref>

The [[Modern South Arabian languages]] have also come under threat in Oman. [[Hobyot language|Hobyot]] is considered a critically endangered language.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al Jahdhami|first=Said|date=October 2016|title=Minority Languages in Oman|journal=Journal of the Association for Anglo-American Studies|volume=4}}</ref> The actual number of speakers is unknown, but it is estimated to be only a few hundred. Most of those who maintain the language are elderly, which adds to the likelihood that language extinction is near. Ethnologue categorizes it as a moribund language (EGIDS 8a). The only fluent speakers that are left are older than the child-bearing age, which ultimately makes integration of the language into subsequent generations highly improbable.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/cloud/hoh|title=Hobyót in the Language Cloud|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2017-04-30}}</ref> Mechanisms of transmission would have to be created from outside the community in order to preserve it.

The [[Harsusi language]] is also critically endangered, as most Harsusi children now attend Arabic-language schools and are literate in Arabic, Harsusi is spoken less in the home, meaning that it is not being passed down to future generations.<ref name=morris>Morris, M. 2007. "[http://www.al-bab.com/bys/articles/morris07.htm The pre-literate, non-Arabic languages of Oman and Yemen.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308095916/http://www.al-bab.com/bys/articles/morris07.htm |date=2015-03-08 }}" Lecture conducted from Anglo-Omani and British-Yemeni Societies.</ref> With the discovery of oil in the area and the reintroduction of the [[Arabian Oryx]] in the area which has provided job opportunities for Harsusi men, this has led to them using primarily Arabic or [[Mehri language|Mehri]] when communicating with their co-workers.<ref name=peterson>Peterson, J.E. "[http://jepeterson.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/Oman_Diverse_Society_Southern_Oman.pdf Oman's Diverse Society: Southern Oman.]" In: ''Middle East Journal'' 58.2, 254-269.</ref> These factors have also caused many Harasis to speak Arabic and Mehri in addition to or in place of Harsusi. These pressures led one researcher to conclude in 1981 that "within a few generations Harsusi will be replaced by Arabic, more specifically by the Omani Arabic standard dialect"<ref>Swiggers, P. 1981. "A Phonological Analysis of the Ḥarsūsi Consonants." In: ''Arabica''  28.2/3, 358-361.</ref> though this has not yet materialized. [[UNESCO]] has categorised Harsusi as a language that is "definitely endangered".<ref>United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), "[http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap/language-id-1950.html Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]", 2010.</ref>

The [[Shehri language]] has also come under threat in recent years, prior to the Arabization of Oman, Shehri was once spoken from Yemen's [[Hadhramaut]] region to [[Ras Al Hadd]] in Eastern Oman.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://shuoon.om/?p=110968 |title=النقوش والكتابات الصخرية بسلطنة عمان.. إرث قديم وشواهد على التاريخ |date=25 October 2021 | access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> Until around as little as forty years ago, Shehri was spoken by all of the inhabitants of Dhofar as the common language, including by the native Arabic speakers in Salalah who spoke it fluently. The remainder of Dhofar's inhabitants all spoke Shehri as their mother tongue. Today however Arabic has taken over as the form of mutual communication in Dhofar and is now exclusively spoken by those to whom it is their native tongue. A number of the older generation of Shehri language speakers, particularly those who live in the mountains, do not even speak Arabic and it was only around fifty years ago that most of Dhofar's Shehri speaking population began to learn it. The fact that Arabic has a written form unlike Shehri has also greatly contributed to its decline.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atheer.om/en/39607/shehri-a-native-omani-language-under-threat/ |title=Shehri: A Native Omani Language Under Threat |date=16 September 2017 | access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref>

Another language, [[Bathari language|Bathari]] is the most at risk of dying out with its numbers (as of 2019) at currently anywhere from 12 to 17 fluent elderly speakers whereas there are some middle aged speakers but they mix their ancestral tongue with Arabic instead.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hall |first1=Joe |title=The National Newspaper |url=https://www.thenational.ae/uae/race-is-on-to-preserve-an-omani-language-spoken-by-17-people-1.957065 |access-date=29 December 2019 |volume=12|issue=220}}</ref> The tribe seems to be dying out with the language also under threat from modern education solely in Arabic. The Bathari language is nearly extinct. Estimates are that the number of remaining speakers are under 100.<ref name="MSAL">{{cite web|url=http://www.salford.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/173010/MSALProjectInformation.pdf|title=MSAL Project Information|publisher=[[University of Salford]]|access-date=30 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315225507/http://www.salford.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/173010/MSALProjectInformation.pdf|archive-date=15 March 2016}}</ref>

===Arabization in Morocco===
Following 44 years of colonization by France,<ref name=":0" /> Morocco began promoting the use of Modern Standard Arabic to create a united Moroccan national identity, and increase literacy throughout the nation away from any predominant language within the administration and educational system. Unlike Algeria, Morocco did not encounter with the French as strongly because the Moroccan population was scattered throughout the nation and major cities, which resulted in a decrease of French influence compared to the neighboring nations.<ref name=":0" />

First and foremost, educational policy was the main focus within the process, debates surfaced between officials who preferred a "modern and westernized" education with enforcement of bilingualism while others fought for a traditional route with a focus of "Arabo-Islamic culture".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Redouane|first=Rabia|date=May 1998|title=Arabisation in the Moroccan Educational System: Problems and Prospects|journal=Language, Culture and Curriculum|volume=11|issue=2|pages=195–203|doi=10.1080/07908319808666550|issn=0790-8318}}</ref> Once the [[Istiqlal Party]] took power, the party focused on placing a language policy siding with the traditional ideas of supporting and focusing on Arabic and Islam.<ref name=":1" /> The Istiqlal Party implemented the policy rapidly and by the second year after gaining independence, the first year of primary education was completely Arabized, and a bilingual policy was placed for the remaining primary education decreasing the hours of French being taught in a staggered manner.<ref name=":1" />

Arabization in schools had been more time-consuming and difficult than expected because for the first 20 years following independence, politicians (most of which were educated in France or French private school in Morocco) were indecisive as to if Arabization was best for the country and its political and economic ties with European nations.<ref name=":0" /> Regardless, complete Arabization can only be achieved if Morocco becomes completely independent from France in all aspects; politically, economically, and socially. Around 1960, Hajj Omar Abdeljalil the education minister at the time reversed all the effort made to Arabize the public school and reverted to pre-independent policies, favoring French and westernized learning.<ref name=":0" /> Another factor that reflected the support of reversing the Arabization process in Morocco, was the effort made by King Hassan II, who supported the Arabization process but on the contrary increased political and economic dependence on France.<ref name=":0" /> Because Morocco remained dependent on France and wanted to keep strong ties with the Western world, French was supported by the elites more than Arabic for the development of Morocco.<ref name=":0" />

===Arabization in Tunisia===
The Arabization process in Tunisia theoretically should have been the easiest within the North African region because less than 1% of its population was Berber, and practically 100% of the population natively spoke vernacular [[Tunisian Arabic]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Arabization in Tunisia: The Tug of War|last=Daoud, Mohamed|date=1991-06-30|publisher=eScholarship, University of California|oclc=1022151126}}</ref> However, it was the least successful due to its dependence on European nations and belief in Westernizing the nation for the future development of the people and the country. Much like Morocco, Tunisian leaders' debate consisted of traditionalists and modernists, traditionalists claiming that Arabic (specifically Classical Arabic) and Islam are the core of Tunisia and its national identity, while modernists believed that Westernized development distant from "Pan-Arabist ideas" are crucial for Tunisia's progress.<ref name=":2" /> Modernists had the upper hand, considering elites supported their ideals, and after the first wave of graduates that had passed their high school examinations in Arabic were not able to find jobs nor attend a university because they did not qualify due to French preference in any upper-level university or career other than Arabic and Religious Studies Department.<ref name=":2" />

There were legitimate efforts made to Arabize the nation from the 1970s up until 1982, though the efforts came to an end and the process of reversing all the progress of Arabization began and French implementation in schooling took effect.<ref name=":2" /> The Arabization process was criticized and linked with Islamic extremists, resulting in the process of "Francophonie" or promoting French ideals, values, and language throughout the nation and placing its importance above Arabic.<ref name=":2" /> Although Tunisia gained its independence, nevertheless the elites supported French values above Arabic, the answer to developing an educated and modern nation, all came from Westernization. The constitution stated that Arabic was the official language of Tunisia but nowhere did it claim that Arabic must be utilized within the administrations or every-day life, which resulted in an increase of French usage not only in science and technology courses. Further, major media channels were in French, and government administrations were divided – some were in Arabic while others were in French.<ref name=":2" />

===Arabization in Sudan===
{{Main|Languages of Sudan}}

[[Sudan]] is an ethnically mixed country that is economically and politically dominated by the society of riverine Sudan along the Nile, where many identify as Arabs and Muslims. The population in [[South Sudan]] consists mostly of Christian and Animist [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic people]], who have been regarded for centuries as non-Arab, African peoples. Apart from Modern Standard Arabic, taught in schools and higher education, and the spoken forms of [[Sudanese Arabic]] colloquial, several other languages are spoken by diverse ethnic groups.

Since independence in 1956, [[Sudan]] has been a multilingual country, with Sudanese Arabic as the major first language among the majority and second language by some minority groups such as the [[Beja people]] in Eastern Sudan. In the 2005 [[constitution of the Republic of Sudan]] and following the [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement]], the official languages of Sudan were declared Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and English. Before the independence of [[South Sudan]] in 2011, people in the southern parts of the country, who mainly speak [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] or [[Juba Arabic]], were subjected to the official policy of Arabization by the central government in Khartoum. The constitution declared, however, that "all indigenous languages of the Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed, and promoted," and it allowed any legislative body below the national level to adopt any other national language(s) as additional official working language(s) within that body's jurisdiction.<ref name=":3">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Languages |encyclopedia=Sudan: a country study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/pdf/CS_Sudan.pdf |last=Bechtold |first=Peter K. |date=2015 |editor-last=Berry |editor1-first=LaVerle |edition=5th |pages=77–79 |isbn=978-0-8444-0750-0}} {{PD-notice}} Though published in 2015, this work covers events in the whole of Sudan (including present-day South Sudan) until the 2011 secession of South Sudan.</ref>

MSA is also the language used in Sudan's central government, the press, as well as in official programmes of Sudan television and Radio Omdurman. Several [[lingua franca]]s have emerged, and many people have become genuinely multilingual, fluent in a native language spoken at home, a lingua franca, and perhaps other languages.<ref name=":3" />

===Arabization in Mauritania===
[[Mauritania]] is an ethnically-mixed country that is economically and politically dominated by those who identify as Arabs and/or Arabic-speaking [[Berbers]]. About 30% of the population is considered "[[Black African]]", and the other 40% are Arabized Blacks, both groups suffering high levels of discrimination.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=87940096 |title= Mauritania Fights to End Racism|website=www.npr.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502165303/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=87940096 |archive-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> Recent Black Mauritanian protesters have complained of "comprehensive Arabization" of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afrik-news.com/article17279.html|title=Mauritania: Marginalised Black populations fight against Arabisation - Afrik-news.com: Africa news, Maghreb news - The African daily newspaper|author=Alicia Koch, Patrick K. Johnsson|date=8 April 2010|publisher=Afrik-news.com|access-date=11 December 2014}}</ref>

===Arabization in Iraq===
{{main|Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq|Al-Anfal Campaign}}

[[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Ba'ath Party]] had aggressive Arabization policies involving driving out many pre-Arab and non-Arab ethnic groups – mainly [[Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Yezidis]], [[Shabaks]], [[Armenians]], [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turcomans]], [[Kawliya]], [[Circassians]], and [[Mandeans]] – replacing them with Arab families.

In the 1970s, Saddam Hussein [[Moaved|exiled]] between 350,000 and 650,000 [[Ajam of Iraq|Shia Iraqis of Iranian ancestry (Ajam)]].<ref name="HamshahriIbrahimi">{{cite web|url=http://www.hamshahri.org/print-7737.aspx|title=Hamshahri Newspaper (In Persian)|work=hamshahri.org|access-date=12 November 2014}}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Most of them went to Iran. Those who could prove an Iranian/Persian ancestry in Iran's court received Iranian citizenship (400,000) and some of them returned to Iraq after [[Saddam Hussein|Saddam]].<ref name="HamshahriIbrahimi"/>

During the Iran-Iraq War, the [[Anfal campaign]] destroyed many Kurdish, Assyrian and other ethnic minority villages and enclaves in North Iraq, and their inhabitants were often forcibly relocated to large cities in the hope that they would be Arabized.

[[Kirkuk#1970 Autonomy Agreement|This policy]] drove out 500,000 people in the years 1991–2003. The Baathists also pressured many of these ethnic groups to identify as Arabs, and restrictions were imposed upon their languages, cultural expression and right to self-identification.

===Arabization in Syria===
{{See also|Human rights in Rojava|Arab Belt|label 2=Arab Belt Project|Qamishli massacre}}

Since the independence of Syria in 1946, the ethnically diverse [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Rojava]] region in northern Syria suffered grave human rights violations, because all governments pursued a most brutal policy of Arabization.<ref name="HRW-1996">{{cite web|title=SYRIA: The Silenced Kurds; Vol. 8, No. 4(E)|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm|website=Human Rights Watch|date=1996}}</ref> While all non-Arab ethnic groups within Syria, such as [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turcomans]], and [[Mhallami]] have faced pressure from [[Arab Nationalism|Arab Nationalist]] policies to identify as ''Arabs'', the most archaic of it was directed against the [[Kurds]]. In his report for the 12th session of the UN [[Human Rights Council]] titled ''Persecution and Discrimination against Kurdish Citizens in Syria'', the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] held:<ref name="OHCHR-2009">{{cite web|title=Persecution and Discrimination against Kurdish Citizens in Syria, Report for the 12th session of the UN Human Rights Council|url=http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/SY/KIS-KurdsinSyria-eng.pdf|website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|date=2009|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095237/http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/SY/KIS-KurdsinSyria-eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> <blockquote>"Successive Syrian governments continued to adopt a policy of ethnic discrimination and national persecution against Kurds, completely depriving them of their national, democratic and human rights – an integral part of human existence. The government imposed ethnically-based programs, regulations and exclusionary measures on various aspects of Kurds' lives – political, economic, social and cultural."</blockquote>

The [[Kurdish language]] was not officially recognized, it had no place in public schools.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name=Tejel>{{cite book|first=Jordi |last=Tejel |url=http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |title=Syria's kurds history, politics and society |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-203-89211-4 |pages=X |edition=1. publ. |author2=Welle, Jane |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001038/http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> A decree from 1989 prohibited the use of Kurdish at the workplace as well as in marriages and other celebrations. In September 1992 came another government decree that children not be registered with Kurdish names.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War|last=Gunter|first=Michael M.|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-435-6|pages=21|language=en}}</ref> Also businesses could not be given Kurdish names.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name="OHCHR-2009" /> Books, music, videos and other material could not be published in Kurdish language.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name=Tejel /> Expressions of Kurdish identity like songs and folk dances were outlawed<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name=Tejel /> and frequently prosecuted under a purpose-built criminal law against "weakening national sentiment".<ref name="HRW-2010">{{cite web|title=HRW World Report 2010|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010|website=Human Rights Watch|date=2010}}</ref> Celebrating the [[Nowruz]] holiday was often constrained.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name=Tejel />

In 1973, the Syrian authorities confiscated 750 square kilometers of fertile agricultural land in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]], which were owned and cultivated by tens of thousands of Kurdish citizens, and gave it to Arab families brought in from other provinces.<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name="CSmonitor-2005">{{cite journal|title=A murder stirs Kurds in Syria|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0616/p01s03-wome.html|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|date=16 June 2005 }}</ref> Describing the settlement policies pursued by the regime as part of the "Arab Belt programme, a Kurdish engineer in the region stated: <blockquote>"The government built them homes for free, gave them weapons, seeds and fertilizer, and created agricultural banks that provided loans. From 1973 to 1975, forty-one villages were created in this strip, beginning ten kilometers west of [[Ras al-Ayn|Ras al-'Ayn]]. The idea was to separate [[Kurds in Turkey|Turkish]] and [[Syrian Kurds]], and to force Kurds in the area to move away to the cities. Any [[Arabs|Arab]] could settle in [[Al-Hasakah|Hasakeh]], but no Kurd was permitted to move and settle there."<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 1996 |title=Syria: The Silenced Kurds |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/1996/10/01/syria-silenced-kurds#P241_41082 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005235027/http://www.hrw.org/report/1996/10/01/syria-silenced-kurds |archive-date=5 October 2015 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref></blockquote>

In 2007, in another such scheme in Al-Hasakah governate, 6,000 square kilometers around [[Al-Malikiyah]] were granted to Arab families, while tens of thousands of Kurdish inhabitants of the villages concerned were evicted.<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /> These and other expropriations of ethnic Kurdish citizens followed a deliberate masterplan, called "Arab Belt initiative", attempting to depopulate the resource-rich Jazeera of its ethnic Kurdish inhabitants and settle ethnic Arabs there.<ref name="HRW-1996" />

After the Turkish-led forces had [[Operation Olive Branch|captured Afrin District]] in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving [[Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army]] fighters and Sunni Arab refugees from southern Syria into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.<ref name="conversion">{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html |title=Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin |author=Patrick Cockburn |work=[[The Independent]] |date=18 April 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 }}</ref> The previous owners, most of them Kurds or [[Yazidis]], were often prevented from returning to Afrin.<ref name="conversion"/> Refugees from Eastern [[Ghouta]], [[Damascus]], said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was supposed to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority.<ref name="conversion"/>

==De-Arabization==
In the modern era, de-Arabization can refer to government policies which aim to reverse Arabization, such as the reversal of the Arabization of [[Kurds]] in northern Iraq and [[Mizrahi Jews]] in [[Israel]].<ref name="Mneimneh">{{Cite web |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/arabs-kurds-and-amazigh-quest-nationalist-fulfillment-old-and-new|title=Arabs, Kurds, and Amazigh: The Quest for Nationalist Fulfillment, Old and New|date=June 2017|author=Hassan Mneimneh}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_utDwAAQBAJ&dq=de-arabization%20iraq&pg=PT390|title=Insurgency and Counter-Insurgency in Iraq|author=Ahmed S. Hashim|date=2011|pages=362|publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9780801459986 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C16NN1Q0W7gC&dq=de-arabization%20iraq&pg=PA16|title=Lessons of the Iraqi De-Ba'athification Program for Iraq's Future and the Arab Revolutions|author= W. Andrew Terrill|date=2010|pages=16|publisher=Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College |isbn=9781584875277 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYw9DwAAQBAJ&dq=re-arabization&pg=PA130|title=Israeli Sociology: Text in Context|author=Uri Ram|date=2017|page=130|publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319593272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP6ARP2m-D0C&dq=re-arabization&pg=PA110|title=Debating Orientalism|author=Anna Bernard|date=2013|pages=110|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137341112 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68MoEAAAQBAJ&dq=dearabization%20iraq&pg=PT16|title=Israeli Theatre: Mizrahi Jews and Self-Representation|author=Naphtaly Shem-Tov|date=2021|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351009065 }}</ref>

===Historic reversions of Arabization===
====Norman conquest of southern Italy (999-1139)====
The [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] lasted from 827 until 902 when the [[Emirate of Sicily]] was established. It was marked by an [[Arab–Byzantine culture]].<ref name="Brown 2015"/> Sicily in turn was then subjected to the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy]] from 999 to 1139.<ref name="Matthew 2012">{{cite book |last=Matthew |first=Donald |year=2012 |orig-year=1992 |chapter=Part I: The Normans and the monarchy – Southern Italy and the Normans before the creation of the monarchy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQfub3l_ejkC&pg=PA9 |title=The Norman Kingdom of Sicily |location=[[Cambridge]] and [[New York City]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |pages=9–19 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139167741.004 |isbn=9781139167741}}</ref><ref name="Deanesly 2019">{{cite book |last=Deanesly |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Deanesly |year=2019 |title=A History of Early Medieval Europe: From 476–911 |chapter=The Later Merovingians |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20ufDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 |location=[[London]] and [[New York City]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |series=Routledge Library Editions: The Medieval World |pages=244–245 |isbn=9780367184582}}</ref> The Arab identity of Sicily came to an end latest by the mid-13th century.<ref name="Brown 2015">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Gordon S. |year=2015 |orig-year=2003 |title=The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily |chapter=Sicily |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fbdYk0-gisC&pg=PA103 |location=[[Jefferson, North Carolina]] |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |pages=103–113 |isbn=978-0-7864-5127-2 |lccn=2002153822}}</ref>

====Reconquista (1212-1492)====
The ''[[Reconquista]]'' in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] is the most notable example of a historic reversion of Arabization. The process of Arabization and Islamization was reversed as the mostly Christian kingdoms in the north of the peninsula conquered [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1085 and [[Province of Córdoba (Spain)|Cordoba]] in 1236.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quatr.us/medieval/reconquista-medieval-spain.htm|title=The Reconquista - Medieval Spain|last=Carr|first=Karen|date=2017-08-03|website=Quatr.us Study Guides|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> [[Emirate of Granada|Granada]], the last remaining emirate on the peninsula, was conquered in January 1492.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spanishwars.net/15th-century-conquest-of-granada.html|title=The Conquest of Granada|website=www.spanishwars.net|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> The re-conquered territories were [[Hispanicization|Hispanicized]] and [[Christianization|Christianized]], although the culture, languages and religious traditions imposed differed from those of the previous [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigothic kingdom]].

===Reversions in modern times===
[[File:Flag of Syrian Democratic Forces.svg|thumb|The multilingual flag of [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] expresses the [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] agenda of the faction in the [[Syrian Civil War]] as opposed to Arabization policies.]]

In modern times, there have been various political developments to reverse the process of Arabization. Notable among these are:
* The 1948 establishment of the [[State of Israel]] as a Jewish polity, [[Hebraization of Palestinian place names]], use of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] as an official language (with [[Arabic language in Israel|Arabic remaining co-official]]) and the de-Arabization of the Arabic-speaking [[Sephardim]] and [[Mizrahi Jews]] who arrived in Israel from the Arab world.<ref name="Shenhav2006">{{cite book|author=Yehouda A. Shenhav|title=The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k7FoMi-qY4kC&pg=PA140|year=2006|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5296-1|page=140}}</ref><ref name="NijimMuammar1984">{{cite book|author1=Basheer K. Nijim |author-link=:ar:بشير نجم |author2=Bishara Muammar|title=Toward the De-Arabization of Palestine/Israel, 1945-1977|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfQNAQAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8403-3299-8|page=159}}</ref>
* The 1992 establishment of a Kurdish-dominated polity in [[Mesopotamia]] as [[Iraqi Kurdistan]].
* The 2012 establishment of a multi-ethnic [[Democratic Federation of Northern Syria]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html|title=After 52-year ban, Syrian Kurds now taught Kurdish in schools|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=6 November 2015|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Berberism]], a [[Berber people|Berber]] political-cultural movement of ethnic, geographic, or cultural [[nationalism]] present in [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]] and broader North Africa including [[Mali]]. The Berberist movement is in opposition to cultural Arabization and the [[pan-Arabist]] political ideology, and is also associated with [[secularism]].
* [[South Sudan]]'s secession from Arab-led [[Sudan]] in 2011 after a bloody civil war decreased Sudan's territory by almost half. Sudan is a member of the Arab League while South Sudan did not enter membership. Arabic also is not an official language of South Sudan. 
*Arabization of Malays was criticized by Sultan [[Ibrahim Ismail of Johor]].<ref>{{cite news |date=24 March 2016 |title=Stop aping Arabs, Johor Sultan tells Malays |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/stop-aping-arabs-johor-sultan-tells-malays |newspaper=Malay Mail Online |location=KUALA LUMPUR }}</ref> He urged the retention of Malay culture instead of introducing Arab culture.<ref>{{cite news |date=24 March 2016<!--, 10:12 am SGT--> |title=Stop trying to be like Arabs, Johor ruler tells Malays |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/stop-trying-to-be-like-arabs-johor-ruler-tells-malays |newspaper=The Straits Times |location=JOHOR BARU  }}</ref> He called on people to not mind unveiled women or mixed sex handshaking, and urged against using Arabic words in place of Malay words.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 March 2016 |title=Johor Sultan Says Be Malay Not Arab |url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/society/malaysia-sultan-to-subjects-be-malay-not-arab/ |newspaper=Asia Sentinel }}</ref> He suggested Saudi Arabia as a destination for those who wanted Arab culture.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zainuddin |first=Abdul Mursyid |date=24 March 2016 |title=Berhenti Cuba Jadi 'Seperti Arab' – Sultan Johor |url=http://www.suara.tv/2016/03/24/berhenti-cuba-jadi-seperti-arab-sultan-johor/ |newspaper=Suara TV |location=JOHOR BAHRU |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926041425/http://www.suara.tv/2016/03/24/berhenti-cuba-jadi-seperti-arab-sultan-johor/ |archive-date=26 September 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=24 March 2016 |title=Sultan Johor Ajak Malaysia Jaga Tradisi Melayu, Bukan Arab |url=https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/03/24/118756567/sultan-johor-ajak-malaysia-jaga-tradisi-melayu-bukan-arab |newspaper=TEMPO.CO |location=TEMPO.CO , Kuala Lumpu }}</ref> He said that he was going to adhere to Malay culture himself.<ref>{{cite news |last=wong |first=chun wai |date=24 March 2016 |title= Stop trying to be like Arabs, Ruler advises Malays  |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/03/24/stop-trying-to-be-like-arabs-ruler-advises-malays/ |newspaper=The Star Online |location=JOHOR BARU }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=24 March 2016 |title=Stop aping Arabs, Johor Sultan tells Malays |url=http://www.todayonline.com/world/asia/stop-aping-arabs-johor-sultan-tells-malays |newspaper=TODAYonline |location=KUALA LUMPUR }}</ref> [[Abdul Aziz Bari]] said that Islam and Arab culture are intertwined and criticized the Johor Sultan for what he said.<ref>{{cite news |date=24 March 2016 |title=Arab culture integral to Islam, Johor sultan advised|url=http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/335069 |newspaper=malaysiakini }}</ref> Datuk Haris Kasim, who leads the Selangor Islamic Religious Department, also criticized the Sultan for his remarks.<ref>{{cite news |last=Irsyad  |first=Arief |date= 7 April 2016  |title=Is "Arabisation" A Threat To The Malay Identity As Claimed By The Johor Sultan? Here's What Some Malays Have To Say |url=http://malaysiandigest.com/features/604507-is-arabisation-a-threat-to-the-malay-identity-as-claimed-by-the-johor-sultan-here-s-what-some-malays-have-to-say.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416185446/http://malaysiandigest.com/features/604507-is-arabisation-a-threat-to-the-malay-identity-as-claimed-by-the-johor-sultan-here-s-what-some-malays-have-to-say.html |archive-date=16 April 2016 |newspaper=Malaysian Digest }}</ref>
* The Chinese government launched a campaign in 2018 to remove Arab-style domes and minarets from mosques in a campaign called "de-Arabization" and "de-[[Saudization]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-11-20 |title=China's new campaign to make Muslims devoted to the state rather than Islam |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-11-20/china-muslim-minorities-hui-dongxiang-secularization-gansu |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Immigration and Refugee Board of |date=2022-10-14 |title=China: Situation of Hui Muslims and their treatment by society and authorities; state protection (2020–September 2022) [CHN201172.E] |url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2081234.html |access-date=2023-06-14 |website= |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{cols}}
* [[Arab nationalism]]
* [[Pan-Arabism]]
* [[Cultural assimilation]]
* [[History of the Arabs]]
* [[Islamism]]
* [[Spread of Islam]]{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{cite book|last=Peters|first=Francis Edward|year=2003|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians|url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe|url-access=registration|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-400-82548-6}}
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* {{cite book|last=Troupeau|first=Gérard|chapter=Ma'lūlā. 1. The Locality|year=1987|volume=VI. Fascicules 103-104 (Malḥūn-Mānd)|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam|editor1-first=Clifford Edmund|editor1-last=Bosworth|editor2-first=Emericus Joannes|editor2-last=van Donzel|editor3-first=B.|editor3-last=Lewis|editor4-first=Ch.|editor4-last=Pellat|editor5-first=F. Th.|editor5-last=Dijkema|editor6-first=Mme S.|editor6-last=Nurit|publisher=Brill|oclc=655961825|edition=New}}

==External links==
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC379148/ Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa]
* Bossut, Camille Alexandra. [https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/45716/BOSSUT-THESIS-2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Arabization in Algeria: language ideology in elite discourse, 1962–1991] ([https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/45716 Abstract]) - PhD thesis, [[University of Texas at Austin]], May 2016.
{{Cultural assimilation|sp=ize}}
{{Arab nationalism}}

[[Category:Arabization| ]]
[[Category:Arabs]]
[[Category:Arab culture]]
[[Category:Arabic languages]]