Editing Archaeological science

{{short description|Application of scientific techniques to archaeology}}
{{Redirects here|Archaeometry|the journal|Archaeometry (journal)}}
'''Archaeological science''' consists of the application of [[scientific technique]]s to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to [[Scientific methodology|methodologies]] of archaeology.  Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish ‘scientific archaeology’ (as an epistemology) from ‘archaeological science’ (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marcos Martinón-Torres and David Killick|title=Archaeological Theories and Archaeological Sciences in "The Oxford Handbook of Archaeological Theory"|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that ‘archaeological science’ has promoted the development of high-level  theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Michael E.|title=Social science and archaeological enquiry|journal=Antiquity|date=4 April 2017|volume=91|issue=356|pages=520–528|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.19|s2cid=151767590 }}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, the [[Natural Environment Research Council|Natural and Environmental Research Council]] provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology.<ref>
{{Cite book
 | last1 = Killick | first1 = D
 | last2 = Young | first2 = SMM
 | year = 1997
 | title = Archaeology and Archaeometry: From Casual Dating to a Meaningful Relationship?
 | publisher = Antiquity
}}</ref>

== Types of archaeological science ==
Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas:<ref>Tite, M.S. (1991) Archaeological Science - past achievements and future prospects. ''Archaeometry'' '''31''' 139-151.</ref>
* physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with [[absolute dating|absolute]] and [[relative dating|relative]] [[chronology|chronologies]]
* [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]] studies
* environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and [[pathology]] of people
* mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods)
* [[remote sensing|remote-sensing]] and [[geophysical survey|geophysical-survey]] techniques for buried features
* [[conservation sciences]], involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservation

Techniques such as [[lithic analysis]], [[archaeometallurgy]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[palynology]] and [[zooarchaeology]] also form sub-disciplines of archaeological science.

=== Dating techniques ===
Archaeological science has particular value when it can provide absolute dates for archaeological [[stratum|strata]] and [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]]. Some of the most important [[Dating methodologies in archaeology|dating]] techniques include:
* [[radiocarbon dating]] — especially for dating organic materials
* [[dendrochronology]] — for dating trees; also very important for calibrating radiocarbon dates
* [[thermoluminescence dating]] — for dating inorganic material (including ceramics)
* [[optically stimulated luminescence]] (OSL) — for absolutely dating and relatively profiling buried land-surfaces in vertical and horizontal stratigraphic sections, most often by measuring photons discharged from grains of [[quartz]] within sedimentary bodies (although this technique can also measure [[potassium feldspar]]s, complications caused by internally induced dose-rates often favor the use of quartz-based analyzes in archaeological applications)
* [[electron spin resonance]], as used (for example) in dating teeth
* [[potassium-argon dating]] — for dating (for example) fossilized [[Hominidae|hominid]] remains by association with volcanic sediments (the fossils themselves are not directly dated)

=== Artifact studies ===
Another important subdiscipline of archaeometry is the study of artifacts. Archaeometrists have used a variety of methods to analyze artifacts, either to determine more about their composition, or to determine their [[Provenance#Archaeology, anthropology, and_paleontology|provenance]]. These techniques include:
* [[X-ray fluorescence]] (XRF)
* [[inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry]] (ICP-MS)
* [[neutron activation analysis]] (NAA)
* [[scanning electron microscope|scanning electron microscopy]] (SEM)
* [[laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy]] (LIBS)

[[Lead]], [[strontium]] and [[oxygen]] [[isotope analysis]] can also test human remains to estimate the diets and even the birthplaces of a study's subjects.

Provenance analysis has the potential to determine the original source of the materials used, for example, to make a particular artifact. This can show how far the artifact has traveled and can indicate the existence of systems of [[trade|exchange]].<ref>
{{Cite book
 | last = Lambert | first = JB
 | year = 1997
 | title = Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemistry
 | publisher = Addison-Wesley
}}</ref>

== Influence of archaeometry ==
Archaeometry has greatly influenced modern archaeology. Archaeologists can obtain significant additional data and information using these techniques, and archaeometry has the potential to revise the understanding of the past. For example, the "second [[radiocarbon revolution]]" significantly re-dated European prehistory in the 1960s, compared to the "first radiocarbon revolution" from 1949.

== Locating archaeological sites ==
Archaeometry is an important tool in finding potential dig sites.  The use of [[remote sensing]] has enabled archaeologists to identify many more archaeological sites than they could have otherwise. The use of [[aerial photography]] (including [[satellite imagery]] and [[Lidar]]) remains the most widespread remote-sensing technique. Ground-based [[archaeological geophysics|geophysical survey]]s often help to identify and map archaeological features within identified sites.<ref>
{{Cite book
 | last = Aitken | first = MJ
 | year = 1961
 | title = Physics and Archaeology
 | publisher = Interscience Publishers
}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|Post-excavation analysis}}
* {{annotated link|Dating methods in archaeology}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Cultural Conservation-Restoration |state=expanded}}
{{Archaeology}}

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