Editing Arend Lijphart

{{Short description|Dutch-American political scientist (born 1936)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{BLP sources|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name              = Arend d'Angremond Lijphart
|image             =
|birth_date        = {{birth date and age|1936|8|17|df=yes}}
|birth_place       = [[Apeldoorn]], Netherlands
|death_date        =
|death_place       =
|nationality       = Dutch<br>United States (dual)
|fields            = [[Political science]]
|workplaces        = [[University of California, San Diego]]
|education         = [[Principia College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])<br>[[Yale University]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
|known_for         =  [[Consociationalism]], [[Consensus democracy]]
|influences        =
|influenced        =
|awards            = {{plainlist|
* President of [[American Political Science Association|APSA]] (1995–1996)
* [[Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science]] (1997)
* honorary doctorates from [[University of Leiden]] (2001), [[Queen's University Belfast]] (2004), [[Ghent University]] (2009)
* Honorary Fellow of [[Coventry University]] (2015)
}}
}}

'''Arend d'Angremond Lijphart''' (born 17 August 1936) is a Dutch-American [[political scientist]] specializing in [[comparative politics]], [[election]]s and [[voting system]]s, [[Democracy|democratic institution]]s, and [[ethnicity]] and politics. He is Research [[Professor Emeritus]] of [[Political Science]] at the [[University of California, San Diego]].<ref>[https://polisci.ucsd.edu/_files/al-cv-2014.pdf CV 2014] polisci.ucsd.edu</ref> He is influential for his work on [[Consociationalism|consociational democracy]] and his contribution to the [[New institutionalism|new Institutionalism]] in political science.<ref>Munck, Gerardo L. and Richard Snyder (2007). "Arend Lijphart: political institutions, divided societies, and consociational democracy," pp. 234–272, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics''. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press; Bernard Grofman, "Arend Lijphart and the New Institutionalism", pp. 43–73, in Markus Crepaz, Thomas Koelble, and David Wilsford (eds.), ''Democracy and Institutions: The Life Work of Arend Lijphart''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000.</ref>

==Biography==
Lijphart was born in [[Apeldoorn]], [[Netherlands]] in 1936.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Munck|first1=Gerardo L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itGOAAAAMAAJ|title=Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics|last2=Snyder|first2=Richard|date=2007|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8464-1|pages=234–235|language=en}}</ref> During his youth, he experienced World War II and he attributed his aversion "to violence" and interest "in questions of both peace and democracy" to this experience.<ref>Munck, Gerardo L. and Richard Snyder (2007). "Arend Lijphart: political institutions, divided societies, and consociational democracy," pp. 234–272, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics.'' Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 237.</ref>

He has a B.A. from [[Principia College]] in 1958 and a PhD in political science from Yale University in 1963.<ref name=":0" /> Lijphart taught at Elmira College (1961–63), the [[University of California, Berkeley]] (1963–68), at [[Leiden University]] (1968–78), and the [[University of California, San Diego]] (UCSD) (1978–2000). He became a professor emeritus at UCSD in 2000.<ref name=":0" />

Dutch by birth, he has spent most of his working life in the United States and became an [[American citizenship|American citizen]]. He has since regained his Dutch citizenship and is now a [[Multiple citizenship|dual citizen]] of both the Netherlands and the United States.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==Awards and honors==

Over his career, Lijphart has received many awards and honors:<ref>The source for the list below is https://polisci.ucsd.edu/_files/al-cv-2014.pdf</ref>

* 1984–85 [[Guggenheim Fellowship|Guggenheim fellow]]
* 1989 Elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
* 1995 to 1996 Served as President of the [[American Political Science Association]].<ref name="Biography">{{cite web|url=http://polisci.ucsd.edu/faculty/lijphart.htm |title=Arend Lijphart |publisher=Department of Political Science, University of California at San Diego |access-date=22 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516072914/http://polisci.ucsd.edu/faculty/lijphart.htm |archive-date=16 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
* In 1993 he became foreign member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knaw.nl/en/members/foreign-members/4473?set_language=en |title=Arend Lijphart |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=15 August 2015}}</ref>
* 1997 Awarded the prestigious [[Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science]] in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://athena.statsvet.uu.se/prize/previous.asp |title=Johan Skytte Prize winners |publisher=Skytte Foundation, [[Uppsala University]] |access-date=23 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021000945/http://athena.statsvet.uu.se/prize/previous.asp |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref>
* 1998 Elected to the [[British Academy]]
* 2010 Received the Constantine Panunzio Distinguished Emeritus Award

Lijphart has also received honorary doctorate from [[Leiden University]] (2001), [[Queen's University Belfast]] (2004), and [[Ghent University]] (2009).

==Major works==
{{BLP sources section|date=May 2023}}

===Consociationalism and consensus democracy===
Lijphart is the leading authority on [[consociationalism]],<ref name=":0" /> or the ways in which segmented societies manage to sustain [[democracy]] through power-sharing. Lijphart developed this concept in his first major work, ''The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands'' (1968), a study of the [[Politics of the Netherlands|Dutch political system]], and further developed his arguments in ''Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration'' (1977).

In ''The Politics of Accommodation'' (1968), Lijphart challenges the influential [[Pluralism (political theory)|pluralist theory]] and argues that the main factor in having a viable democracy in a strongly divided society is the spirit of accommodation among the elites of different groups.<ref>Arend Lijphart, ''The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands'', Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1968.</ref>

In ''Democracy in Plural Societies'' (1977), Lijphart demonstrates that democracy can be achieved and maintained in countries with deep religious, ideological, linguistic, cultural, or ethnic cleavages if elites opt for a set of institutions that are distinctive of [[Consociationalism|consociational democracy]]. In this book, Lijphart defines a consociational democracy in terms of four characteristics: (1) "government by grand coalition of the political leaders of all significant segments of the plural society," (2) "the mutual veto", (3) proportionality, and (4) "a high degree of autonomy of each segment to run its own internal affairs."<ref>Arend Lijphart, ''Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977, p 25.</ref> Lijphart's work challenged the then influential view that democracy could only be stable in countries with a homogenous political culture.

Beginning with his book ''Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian & Consensus Government in Twenty-one Countries'' (1984), Lijphart focused on the broader contrast between [[majoritarian democracy]] and [[consensus democracy]]. While Lijphart advocated consociationalism primarily for societies deeply divided along ethnic, religious, ideological, or other cleavages, he sees consensus democracy as appropriate for any society with a consensual political culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lijphart|first=Arend|title=Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|year=1999|isbn=978-0-300-07893-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_YGjQiZI98C}}</ref> In contrast to majoritarian democracies, consensus democracies have multiparty systems, parliamentarism with oversized (and therefore inclusive) cabinet coalitions, [[Proportional representation|proportional electoral systems]], corporatist (hierarchical) interest group structures, federal structures, [[bicameralism]], rigid constitutions protected by [[judicial review]], and independent [[central bank]]s. These institutions ensure, firstly, that only a broad supermajority can control policy and, secondly, that once a coalition takes power, its ability to infringe on minority rights is limited.

In ''Patterns of Democracy'' (1999, 2nd ed., 2012), Lijphart classifies thirty-six democracies using these attributes. He finds consensus democracies to be "kinder, gentler" states, having lower incarceration rates, less use of the death penalty, better care for the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]], more foreign aid work, and more welfare spending – qualities he feels "should appeal to all democrats".<ref>{{cite book|last=Lijphart|first=Arend|title=Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|year=1999|isbn=978-0-300-07893-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_YGjQiZI98C|page=293}}</ref> He also finds that consensus democracies have a less abrasive [[political culture]], more functional business-like proceedings, and a results-oriented ethic. The 2012 edition included data up to 2010 and found proportional representation (PR) was vastly superior for the "quality of democracy", being statistically significantly better for 19 of 19 indicators. On the issue of "effective government" 16 out of 17 indicators pointed to PR as superior, with 9 out of 17 statistically significant. These results held up when controlling for the level of development and population size.

Peter Gourevitch and Gary Jacobson argue that Lijphart's work on democracy make him "the world's leading theorist of democracy in sharply divided societies."<ref>Peter Gourevitch and Gary Jacobson, "Arend Lijphart, A Profile." ''PS: Political Science & Politics'' 28(4)(1995): 751–754, p. 751</ref> Nils-Christian Bormann claims that "Arend Lijphart's typology of democratic systems has been one of the major contributions to comparative political science in the last decades."<ref>Bormann, Nils-Christian. 2010. "Patterns of Democracy and Its Critics." ''Living Reviews in Democracy'', p. 1.[https://ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/cis-dam/CIS_DAM_2015/WorkingPapers/Living_Reviews_Democracy/Bormann.pdf]</ref> Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder hold that "Arend Lijphart is a leading empirical democratic theorist who reintroduced the study of political institutions into comparative politics in the wake of the behavioral revolution."<ref>Munck, Gerardo L. and Richard Snyder (2007). "Arend Lijphart: political institutions, divided societies, and consociational democracy," pp. 234–272, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics.'' Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 234.</ref>

===Methodology===
Lijphart has also made influential contributions to methodological debates within comparative politics, most notably through his 1971 article "Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method," published in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]''.<ref name="Lijphart 1971 682–693">{{cite journal|last=Lijphart|first=Arend|s2cid=55713809|year=1971|title=Comparative politics and the comparative method|journal=American Political Science Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=682–693|jstor=1955513|doi=10.2307/1955513}}</ref>

In this article Lijphart argues that the comparative method can be understood in contrast to the experimental and statistical methods and claims that the main difficulty facing the comparative method is that "it must generalize on the basis of relatively few empirical cases."<ref name="Lijphart 1971 682–693"/> To solve this problem, Lijphart suggests four solutions:<ref name="Lijphart 1971 682–693"/>
* (1) "increasing the number of cases as much as possible by means of longitudinal extension and a global range of analysis" 
* (2) "Reducing the property space of the analysis"
* (3) "Focusing the comparative analysis on 'comparable' cases"
* (4) "Focusing on the key variables"

Lijphart also discusses the [[case study]] method and identifies six types of case studies:<ref name="Lijphart 1971 682–693"/>
* (1) Atheoretical
* (2) Interpretative
* (3) Hypothesis-generating
* (4) Theory-confirming
* (5) Theory-infirming
* (6) Deviant case analyses

Lijphart work on methodology drew on ideas developed by [[Neil Smelser]].<ref>Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, "Arend Lijphart: Political Institutions, Divided Societies, and Consociational Democracy," pp. 234–72, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics''. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007, p. 263; Neil J. Smelser, "Notes on the Methodology of Comparative Analysis of Economic Activity." ''Social Science Information'' 6(2–3) 1967: 7–21; Neil J. Smelser, ''Comparative Methods in the Social Sciences''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976.</ref> It was also the point of departure for the work by [[David Collier (political scientist)|David Collier]] on the comparative method.<ref>David Collier, "The Comparative Method," pp. 105–19, in Ada W. Finifter (ed.), ''Political Science: The State of the Discipline II''. Washington, D.C.: The American Political Science Association, 1993.</ref>

==Publications==
===Books===
* Lijphart, Arend. 1966. ''The Trauma of Decolonization: The Dutch & West New Guinea''. New Haven: Yale University Press.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1968. ''The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands'', Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1977. ''Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-02494-4}}.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1984. ''[[Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian & Consensus Government in Twenty-one Countries]]''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-03182-9}}.
* 'Lijphart, Arend. 1985. 'Power-Sharing in South Africa''. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California. {{ISBN|978-0-87725-524-6}}.
* Grofman, Bernard, and Lijphart, Arend (eds.). 1986. ''Electoral Laws & Their Political Consequences''. New York: Agathon Press. {{ISBN|978-0-87586-074-9}}.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1994.  ''Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945–1990''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-828054-5}}.
* Lijphart, Arend, and Waisman, Carlos H. (eds.). 1996. ''Institutional Design in New Democracies''. Boulder, Colorado: Westview. {{ISBN|978-0-8133-2109-7}}.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1999. ''Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-07893-0}}
* Grofman, Bernard and Lijphart, Arend (eds.). 2002. ''The Evolution of Electoral & Party Systems in the Nordic Countries''. New York: Agathon Press. {{ISBN|978-0-87586-138-8}}.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2008. ''Thinking About Democracy. Power sharing and majority rule in theory and practice''. New York, NY: Routledge. 
* Lijphart, Arend. 2012. ''Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms & Performance in Thirty-six Countries'', Second Edition. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-17202-7}}
* Taylor, Steven L., Matthew S. Shugart, Arend Lijphart, and Bernard Grofman. 2014. ''A Different Democracy: American Government in a 31-Country Perspective''. New Haven: Yale University Press.

===Articles and chapters===
* Lijphart, Arend. 1968. ”Typologies of Democratic Systems.“ ''Comparative Political Studies'' 1(1): 3–44.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1969. "Consociational Democracy." ''World Politics'' 21(2): 207–25.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1971. "Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method." ''American Political Science Review'' 65(3):682–93.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1972. "Toward Empirical Democratic Theory: Research Strategies and Tactics." ''Comparative Politics'' 4(3): 417–32.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1975. "The Comparable-Case Strategy in Comparative Research." ''Comparative Political Studies'' 8(2): 158–77.
* Lijphart, Arend. 1997. "Dimensions of democracies".'' European Journal of Political Research'' 31: 193–204/
* Lijphart, Arend. 1998. "Consensus and Consensus: Democracy Cultural, Structural, Functional, and Rational-Choice Explanations." ''Scandinavian Political Studies'' 21(2): 99–108. (Lecture given by the Winner of the Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science, Uppsala, 4 October 1997.)
* Lijphart, Arend. 2000. "The Pros and Cons – but mainly Pros – of Consensus Democracy". ''Acta Politica'' 36(2): 129–39.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2000. "The Future of Democracy: Reasons for Pessimism, but Also Some Optimism." ''Scandinavian Political Studies'' 23(3): 245–283.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2001. "Democracy in the 21st century: Can we be optimistic?" ''European Review'' 9(2), 169–184.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2002. "Negotiation Democracy versus Consensus Democracy: Parallel Conclusions and Recommendations." ''European Journal of Political Research'' 41(1):107–113.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2004. "Constitutional Design for Divided Societies." ''Journal of Democracy'' 15,2: 96–109.
* Lijphart, Arend. 2013. "Steps in My Research and Thinking About Power Sharing and Democratic Institutions." ''Taiwan Journal of Democracy'' Special issue, 1–7.[http://www.tfd.org.tw/export/sites/tfd/files/publication/journal/dj201305/001-008.pdf]
* Lijphart, Arend. 2018. "Consociationalism After Half a Century," pp. 1–9, in Michaelina Jakala, Durukan Kuzu, and Matt Qvortrup (eds.). ''Consociationalism and Power-Sharing in Europe. Arend Lijphart's Theory of Political Accommodation''. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

== Further reading ==
* [http://wikisum.com/w/Category:Authors/Lijphart,_Arend Summaries of Lijphart's major works] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213103750/http://wikisum.com/w/Category:Authors/Lijphart%2C_Arend |date=13 December 2007 }}
* Andeweg, Rudy. 2001. "Lijphart versus Lijphart: The Cons of Consensus Democracy in Homogenous Societies." ''Acta Politica'' 36(2): 117–28.
* Bormann, Nils-Christian. 2010. "Patterns of Democracy and Its Critics." ''Living Reviews in Democracy''.[https://ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/cis-dam/CIS_DAM_2015/WorkingPapers/Living_Reviews_Democracy/Bormann.pdf]
* Crepaz, Markus M. L., Thomas A. Koelble, and David Wilsford (eds.). 2000. ''Democracy and Institutions: The Life Work of Arend Lijphart''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Jakala, Michaelina, Durukan Kuzu, and Matt Qvortrup (eds.). 2018. ''Consociationalism and Power-Sharing in Europe. Arend Lijphart's Theory of Political Accommodation''. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
* Lustick, Ian S. 1997. "Lijphart, Lakatos, and Consociationalism." ''World Politics'' Vol. 50, No. 1: 88–117.
* Gourevitch, Peter, and Gary Jacobson. 1995. "Arend Lijphart, A Profile." ''PS: Political Science & Politics'' 28(4): 751–754.
* Grofman, Bernard. 1997. "Arend Lijphart and the 'New Institutionalism'". UC Irvine, CSD Working Papers.[https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4s0786k3]
* Hadenius, Axel. 2002. "Power-Sharing and Democracy: Pros and Cons of the Rustow-Lijphart Approach", pp. 65–86, in Ole Elgström and Goran Hyden (eds.), ''Development and Democracy: What Have We Learned and How?'' New York: Routledge and ECPR.
* Munck, Gerardo L. and Richard Snyder. 2007. "Arend Lijphart: political institutions, divided societies, and consociational democracy," pp. 234–272, in Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics''. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press. [Interview with Arend Lijphart]
* Schouten, Peer. 2008. "Theory Talk #8: Arend Lijphart on Sharing Power in Africa and the Future of Democracy," Theory Talks (26-05-2008). {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080611124158/http://www.theory-talks.org/2008/05/theory-talk-8.html]}}
* Taagepera, Rein. 2003. "Arend Lijphart's Dimensions of Democracy: Logical Connections and Institutional Design." ''Political Studies'' 51(1): 1–19.
* Taiwan Foundation of Democracy. 2013. Special Issue of ''Taiwan Journal of Democracy'' (May 2013) in honor of Arend Lijphart.[http://www.tfd.org.tw/opencms/english/publication/journal/data/Journal0007.html 臺灣民主基金會]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160911132638/https://polisci.ucsd.edu/about-our-people/faculty/faculty-directory/emeriti-faculty/lijphart-profile.html Arend Lijphart at UCSD]
* [https://ucsd.libguides.com/c.php?g=90743&p=5110568 Lijphart Elections Archive]

{{American Political Science Association presidents}}
{{Recipients of the Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lijphart, Arend}}
[[Category:1936 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dutch political scientists]]
[[Category:People from Apeldoorn]]
[[Category:Dutch emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:American political scientists]]
[[Category:Scholars of nationalism]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Corresponding fellows of the British Academy]]
[[Category:Principia College alumni]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:University of California, San Diego faculty]]
[[Category:Elmira College faculty]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Leiden University]]