Editing Arripis

{{Short description|Genus of ray-finned fishes}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = 9lbsalmon.jpg
| image_caption = Australian salmon (''A. trutta'')
| parent_authority = [[Theodore Nicholas Gill|Gill]], 1893<ref name = VDLEF>{{cite journal | author1 = Richard van der Laan | author2 = William N. Eschmeyer | author3 = Ronald Fricke | name-list-style=amp |year=2014 | title = Family-group names of Recent fishes | url = https://mapress.com/zt/article/download/zootaxa.3882.1.1/33563 | journal = Zootaxa | volume = 3882 | issue =2 | pages = 001–230| doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.3882.1.1 | pmid = 25543675 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
| taxon = Arripis
| authority = [[Leonard Blomefield|Jenyns]], 1840<ref name = CofF>{{Cof record|genid=1752|title=''Arripis''|access-date=20 April 2020}}</ref>
| type_species = ''[[Arripis trutta]]''
| type_species_authority = J. R. Forster, 1801
| synonyms = *''Deuteropterus'' <small>Gill, 1861</small>
*''Homodon'' <small>[[Charles N. F. Brisout|Brisout de Barneville]], 1847</small>
*''Lepidomegas'' <small>[[Alexander Thominot|Thominot]], 1880</small>
*''Mulloides'' <small>[[John Richardson (naturalist)|Richardson]], 1843</small>
| synonyms_ref = <ref name = Coffs>{{Cof family|family=Arripidae|access-date=20 April 2020}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
}}

'''''Arripis''''' is a genus of marine [[ray-finned fish]]es from [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], known as '''Australian salmon''', '''kahawai''' and '''Australian herring'''. They are the only members of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Arripidae'''. Despite the [[common name]], Australian salmon are not related to the [[salmon]] family [[Salmonidae]] of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], just as Australian herring are not related to [[herring]] of the Northern Hemisphere, but belong to the order [[Scombriformes]] of [[mackerel]]-like fishes. Australian salmon were named so by early [[Europe]]an settlers after their superficial resemblance to salmonids.

Relatively long-lived fish, Australian salmon are a favoured target of recreational fishers, and both commercial and traditional [[Māori people|Māori]] [[fishery|fisheries]]. They are also common [[bycatch]] of the [[Australasian snapper]] (''Pagrus auratus''), [[mullet (fish)|mullet]] (Mugilidae), [[white trevally]] (''Pseudocaranx dentex''), and mackerel ([[Scombridae]]) fisheries. These species are all taken in great numbers by way of [[purse seine]] nets and [[trawl]]ing. They are also caught by skilled fishermen along the southern coastline of Australia by beach seining.

== Species and range ==
Four recognised species are in this genus.<ref>{{FishBase genus | genus = Arripis| month = December | year = 2012}}</ref>  The ranges of the species may overlap to some extent, but can be described as:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Image !! Scientific name !! Common Name !! Distribution
|-
|[[File:Tommy Ruff 1.PNG|120px]] || ''[[Arripis georgianus]]'' <small>([[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1831)</small>|| ruff, tommy ruff, Australian ruff, Australian herring ||[[Gippsland]] Lakes, [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]] to [[Shark Bay]], [[Western Australia]]
|-
|[[File:Arripis sp.jpg|120px]] || ''[[Arripis trutta]]'' <small>([[Johann Reinhold Forster|J. R. Forster]], 1801)</small>  || Australian salmon, eastern Australian salmon, kahawai ||From western Victoria to New Zealand, including the islands of [[Tasmania]], [[Lord Howe Island|Lord Howe]], and [[Norfolk Island|Norfolk]]
|-
| || ''[[Arripis truttaceus]]'' <small>([[Georges Cuvier|G. Cuvier]], 1829)</small> || western Australian salmon ||Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania
|-
| || ''[[Arripis xylabion]]'' <small>[[Chris D. Paulin|Paulin]], 1993</small> || northern kahawai, Kermadec kahawai|| New Zealand, west to Lord Howe, Norfolk, and [[Kermadec Islands]]
|-
|}

== Description ==
A streamlined, fusiform body and large, powerful forked tail – the upper lobe of which is equal to or less than the length of the head in the eastern Australian salmon – are indications of the fast-paced pelagic lives these fish lead. Upon dissection, the extremely large, dense gills (for maximum oxygen extraction) and large proportion of red aerobic muscle in the 'fillets' is further evidence of a fast-paced pelagic life. The first (spinous, with 9 spines) [[dorsal fin]] originates behind the [[pectoral fin]]s, the former being confluent with, but noticeably higher than the much longer soft dorsal fin (with 15–19 rays), itself much longer than the [[anal fin]] (which has three spines and 9–10 soft rays). The [[pelvic fin]] is situated in a thoracic position.

[[Scale (zoology)|Scale]]s and [[eye]]s are relatively large – in the Australian herring, the eyes are approximately one-fifth the length of the head in diameter. The large mouth is terminal, and the jaws are lined with bands of sharp villiform (brushlike) [[tooth|teeth]]. The [[lateral line]] runs along the upper sides of the body.

The western Australian salmon is the largest species at a maximum {{convert|96|cm|abbr=on}} standard length (that is, excluding the caudal fin) and {{convert|10.5|kg|abbr=on}} in weight. The Australian herring is the smallest species at maximum {{convert|41|cm|abbr=on}} [[fork length]] (that is, from the snout to the middle of the caudal fin's fork) and {{convert|800|g|abbr=on}}. Australian salmon share a passing resemblance to the unrelated [[yellowtail amberjack]], (''Seriola lalandi''), locally known as "kingfish", with which larger Australian salmon are sometimes confused.

All species are strongly [[countershading|countershaded]]; dorsal colours range from dark blue-green in ''A. trutta'', green in ''A. georgianus'', and steel-blue to grayish- or greenish-black in ''A. truttaceus''; the colours fade to a silver-white ventrally. A smattering of yellow, gray, or blackish spots embellishes the dorsal half, the spots arranged vertically or longitudinally in a series of rows. There are marked differences in subadult coloration: for example, on the flanks of juvenile Australian herring are a series of dark golden vertical bars.

<gallery>
FMIB 45665 Arripis georgianus.jpeg|''Arripis georgianus''
Australian salmon.png|''A. trutta''
</gallery>

== Reproduction ==
Although their reproduction is poorly studied, Australian salmon are all known to be "pelagic spawners"; that is, they [[spawn (biology)|spawn]] in open water during the austral spring, releasing a large number of tiny (1&nbsp;mm in diameter), smooth spherical [[egg (biology)|eggs]] made buoyant by [[lipid]] droplets. The eggs (and later the [[larva]]e), which possess an unsegmented [[yolk]], become part of the [[zooplankton]], drifting at the mercy of the currents until the larvae develop and settle. The young Australian salmon then spend the first two to five years in sheltered coastal bays, inlets, and estuaries until they become sexually mature and begin to move into more open waters. Relatively long-lived fishes, Australian salmon may attain an age of 26 yr in ''Arripis trutta'' and 7–9 yr in other species.

All species are oceanic spawners. Reports of ''A. trutta'' being [[anadromous]] and spawning in freshwater are not correct; this may be due to confusion with sea-run specimens of exotic [[brown trout]], (''Salmo trutta''), or anadromous populations of native [[spotted galaxias]], (''Galaxias truttaceus'').

''A. georgianus'' is thought – due to females retaining both ripe and unripe eggs – to be "partial spawners"; that is, they may spawn over a long period with no real peaks. In contrast, ''A. trutta'' and ''A. truttaceus'' are thought to be "serial batch spawners", completing their spawning season after a series of small "burst" spawnings.

== Ecology ==
All species are [[Neritic zone|neritic]] and [[epipelagic]], staying within the upper layers of relatively shallow (1–80 m), open and clear coastal waters (although the western Australian salmon may prefer deeper water). The turbulent [[surf zone]] of [[beach]]es, rocky [[reef]]s, bays, and [[brackish]] waters such as [[estuary|estuaries]] are also frequented, and some species may also enter [[river]]s. Juveniles inhabit estuaries and [[mangrove]]s, as well as sheltered bays with soft bottoms carpeted with [[seagrass]]es. Adults undertake seasonal migrations over vast distances, moving into deeper water during winter months. The evolutionary history of the species of ''Arripis'' has been shaped by changes to oceanographic conditions and land-bridges that occurred during glacial cycles.<ref>{{cite thesis |author=Glenn Moore |title=Aspects of the evolutionary history of a pair of fish species (Arripidae: ''Arripis'') on either side of a biogeographic barrier in Southern Australian seas |year=2012 |url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/8476/ |degree=[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] |publisher=[[Murdoch University]]}}</ref>

Australian salmon form immense schools with hundreds to thousands of individuals, as both adults and juveniles. They are [[carnivore|carnivorous]] and feed primarily on small fish, such as [[pilchard]] (Clupeidae); [[crustacean]]s such as [[krill]] (Euphausiacea), [[copepod]]s, and other [[zooplankton]] (the latter comprising the bulk of the juvenile diets). The [[benthos|zoobenthos]] is also sampled to some extent, with primarily [[shellfish]], [[crab]]s, and [[annelid]] worms eaten. The Australian salmon are very fast swimmers, and are sometimes seen mingling with ostensibly similar species of [[Carangidae|carangids]], such as trevally; this is an example of [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]].

Together with the carangids, Australian salmon feed ''en masse'' by co-operatively bullying baitfish up to the surface; this herding technique is exploited by [[seabird]]s which are quickly attracted to, and feed upon, the foaming mass of fish at the surface. This [[commensalism|commensal]] relationship between the Australian salmon and the birds is noted to be especially strong in such species as the [[white-fronted tern]], (''Sterna striata''), [[fluttering shearwater]], (''Puffinus gavia''), and [[Buller's shearwater]], (''Puffinus bulleri''). The baitfish made available by the Australian salmon's herding behaviour may also be important to the reproductive success of winter-nesting birds; the decline of the Australians salmon stocks has evoked concern for these bird species, some of which – such as the [[fairy tern]], (''Sterna nereis'') – are [[endangered species|endangered]]<ref>[http://www.option4.co.nz/Fisheries_Mgmt/kahl_mcu.htm Kahawai – Letter to Marine Conservation Unit ] www.option4.co.nz (2004).</ref>

Aside from seabirds, the Australian salmon are also important in the diets of [[cetacean]]s, such as [[killer whale]]s (''Orcinus orca'') and [[bottlenose dolphin]]s (''Tursiops truncatus'' & ''T. aduncus''); several species of large [[shark]]s, for example; [[great white shark|great white]] (''Carcharodon carcharias''), [[dusky shark|dusky]] (''Carcharhinus obscurus''), [[copper shark|copper]] (''Carcharhinus brachyurus''), and [[sand tiger shark|sand tiger]] (''Carcharias taurus'') sharks; and [[eared seal]]s such as the [[Australian sea lion]] (''Neophoca cinerea'').

==Diet==
''Arripis trutta'' is principally a pelagic feeder, which however occasionally feeds from the sea bottom, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to their diet as it appears they feed on those fishes which are locally abundant such as shoals of small fish on which preys. Small kahawai below 100mm in length mainly eat copepods and planktonic crustaceans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Alan |title=Food and feeding of Kahawai (Teleostei: Arripididae) |journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |date=1971 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=291–299 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1971.9515382 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1971NZJMF...5..291B }}</ref> This was derived from the analysis of 326 stomachs of the kahawai from Wellington Harbour, which exhibited that the fish is a voracious carnivore which feeds mainly on fishes and to a lesser extent on planktonic crustaceans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Alan |title=Food and feeding of Kahawai (Teleostei: Arripididae) |journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |date=1971 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=291–299 |doi=10.1080/00288330.1971.9515382 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1971NZJMF...5..291B }}</ref>

== Importance to humans ==
Australian Salmon contains significant amounts of blood in the fillet and under the skin which if not removed results in a strong flavoured flesh that is unappealing to many consumers.  However when bled immediately after capture and filleted properly to remove all traces of blood the resulting flesh is white, neutral flavoured and excellent to eat.  What is not sold for human consumption is used as bait for [[rock lobster]] (Palinuridae) traps and other commercial and recreational fishing. The Australian salmon fetch no more than a few dollars (AU) per kilogram; nonetheless, large numbers are taken via purse seine nets (and to a lesser extent trawling, hauling, [[gill net|gill]], and trap nets) annually; the reported 2002–2003 commercial New Zealand catch of kahawai was 2,900 [[tonne]]s. Such reported catches do not include the untold tonnes taken as bycatch from operations targeting more highly valued species. Low-flying planes are used to locate and target sizeable Australian salmon schools, and critics have cited this practice as a means by the industry to artificially inflate catch records (which would give a false impression of abundance). Australian salmon numbers have declined noticeably however, with large specimens becoming ever rarer; the fish have all but disappeared from some areas. On October 1, 2004, the [[New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries]] included kahawai under its [[Quota Management System]], setting a catch limit of 3,035 tonnes for the season. This was a 5% increase over the previous two years, despite the government's intention of lowering catch limits.

In New Zealand, Australian salmon and in particular northern kahawai are highly regarded for their flesh when hot smoked by recreational fisherman, usually using manuka sawdust or woodchips. Australian salmon prepared in this manner are available in many New Zealand supermarkets and fishmongers. The flesh is usually eaten hot, or broken up and used in fish pie.

The [[Māori people|Māori]] of New Zealand, to whom the fish are known by their name ''kahawai'', ''koopuuhuri'', and ''kooukauka'',<ref>[http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/what-we-do/publications/the-best-fish-guide-/fish-species-/kahawai Best Fish Guide: Kahawai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531151625/http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/what-we-do/publications/the-best-fish-guide-/fish-species-/kahawai |date=2012-05-31 }} www.forestandbird.org.nz</ref> fish in subsistence and customary capacities. The fish were (and are) caught with lines of [[Phormium|flax]] fibre and elaborate [[Fish hook|hook]]s of [[bone]], [[wood]], [[Exoskeleton|shell]] such as [[abalone|paua]], or [[rock (geology)|stone]]. The fish are filleted before being hung on racks to dry. Recreational fishers also seek Australian salmon for their renowned mettle when hooked; the fish are a challenge to land and often jump, occasionally standing on their tails. A significant number are taken for sport. No records of total recreational catches are kept, but the year's estimated catch of Australian herring from Western Australia's [[Blackwood River]] estuary beginning May, 1974, was 68,000 individuals.<ref>[http://adl.brs.gov.au/fishstats/atlas/37344001.cfm]{{dead link|date=October 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

Commercial fishing practices undertaken across Australia and New Zealand have been highly criticised in various recreational fishing magazines as being excessive. Many high-profile anglers, such as those on Fishing WA, have made statements that the commercial fish catch in Western Australia and Australia in general is beyond the scope necessary for human and animal consumption, and that they are far more valuable as a recreational fish species. The ease of catching Australian salmon, which tend to form schools of several tonnes, has meant recreational fishers are finding fewer of these species in inshore waters during the season (the migration patterns of Australian salmon mean they come into warmer waters during the autumn).

==References==
* {{FishBase family | family = Arripidae | year = 2006 | month = March}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1660586}}
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[[Category:Arripidae| ]]
[[Category:Marine fish of Australia| ]]
[[Category:Game fish]]
[[Category:Commercial fish]]
[[Category:Marine fish genera]]

[[nl:Australische zalmen]]