Editing Aspendos

{{short description|Ancient Greco-Roman city}}
{{About|the ancient city in present-day Turkey|the medication marketed as Aspendos|Modafinil}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Aspendos
  |native_name = Ἄσπενδος {{in lang|grc}}
  |alternate_name = Aspendus
  |image = [[File:Aspendos Basilica 4728.jpg||270px]]
  |alt = 
  |caption = The Roman Basilica at Aspendos, 2011
  |map_type = Turkey
  |map_alt = 
  |map_size = 270
  |coordinates = {{coord|36|56|20|N|31|10|20|E|display=inline,title}}
  |location = [[Serik]], [[Antalya Province]], [[Turkey]]
  |region = [[Pamphylia]]
  |type = Settlement
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  |builder = 
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  |abandoned = 
  |epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
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  |archaeologists = 
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}}
'''Aspendos''' or '''Aspendus''' ([[Pamphylian Greek|Pamphylian]]: ΕΣΤϜΕΔΥΣ; [[Ancient Greek|Attic]]: Ἄσπενδος) was an [[ancient]] [[Greco-Roman]] city in [[Antalya province]] of [[Turkey]]. The site is located 40&nbsp;km east of the modern city of [[Antalya]].

It was situated on the [[Eurymedon River]] about 16&nbsp;km  inland from the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; it shared a border with, and was hostile to, the ancient city of [[Side, Turkey|Side]].<ref>Barbara Burrell, ''Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors'' (Brill, 2004: {{ISBN|90-04-12578-7}}), p. 189.</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Aspendos money.png|thumb|150px|Coins of Aspendos]]
The wide range of its coinage throughout the ancient world indicates that, in the 5th century BC, Aspendos had become the most important city in Pamphylia. At that time, according to [[Thucydides]], the Eurymedon River was navigable as far as Aspendos,<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Aspendus|volume=2|pages=766–767|first=David George|last=Hogarth|author-link=David George Hogarth}}</ref> and the city derived great wealth from a trade in salt, oil and wool.

Aspendos did not play an important role in antiquity as a political force. Its political history during the colonisation period corresponded to the currents of the [[Pamphylia]]n region. Within this trend, after the colonial period, it remained for a time under Lycian hegemony.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} In 546&nbsp;BC, it came under [[Persia]]n domination. The fact that the city continued to mint coins in its own name, however, indicates that it had a great deal of freedom even under the Persians.

Circa 465 BC, [[Cimon]] led an Athenian navy against a Persian navy in the [[Battle of the Eurymedon]], and destroyed it. Aspendos then became a member of the [[Delian League]].<ref>[http://cheap-holidaystoturkey.com Holidays to Turkey info] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111060105/http://cheap-holidaystoturkey.com/ |date=2012-01-11 }}</ref>

The Persians captured the city again in 411&nbsp;BC and used it as a base. In 389&nbsp;BC, [[Thrasybulus]] of Athens, in an effort to regain some of the prestige that city had lost in the [[Peloponnesian Wars]], anchored off the coast of Aspendos in an effort to secure its surrender. Hoping to avoid a new war, the people of Aspendos collected money among themselves and gave it to the commander, entreating him to retreat without causing any damage. Even though he took the money, he had his men trample all the crops in the fields. Enraged, the Aspendians stabbed and killed Thrasybulus in his tent.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Aspendos plan of the ancient city.jpg|thumb|276x276px|Plan of Aspendos]]
When [[Alexander the Great]] marched into Aspendos in 333&nbsp;BC after capturing [[Perge]], the citizens sent envoys asking him not to garrison soldiers there. He agreed, provided he would be given the taxes and horses that they had formerly paid as tribute to the Persian king.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} After reaching this agreement Alexander went to Side, leaving a garrison there on the city's surrender. Going back through Sillyon, he learned that the Aspendians had failed to ratify the agreement their envoys had proposed and were preparing to defend themselves. Alexander marched to the city immediately. When they saw Alexander returning with his troops, the Aspendians, who had retreated to their [[Acropolis]], again sent envoys to sue for peace. This time, however, they had to agree to very harsh terms; a Macedonian garrison would remain in the city and 100 gold talents as well as 4,000 horses would be given in tax annually.

In 190&nbsp;BC, the city surrendered to the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], and the corrupt magistrate [[Verres]] later pillaged its art treasures.<ref name="EB1911"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Cicero|title=In Verrem II|pages=1. Chapter 53}}</ref>  It was ranked by [[Philostratus]] the third city of Pamphylia, and in [[Byzantine]] times seems to have been known as Primopolis. Toward the end of the Roman period the city began a decline that continued throughout Byzantine times, although in medieval times it was evidently still a strong place.<ref name="EB1911"/>

[[Diogenes Laërtius]] writes that there was a native of Aspendos called Demetrius, who was a pupil of Apollonius of Soli.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001.perseus-grc1:5.5 Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers, § 5.83]</ref> In addition, he mentions [[Diodorus of Aspendus]].<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001.perseus-grc1:6.1 Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers, § 6.13]</ref>

==Greek and Roman structures==
[[File:Aspendos Theatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Theatre of Aspendos]]]]
Aspendos is known for having the best-preserved theatre of antiquity, the [[Roman Theatre of Aspendos]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Andreae |first=Bernard |title=The Art of Rome |publisher=H. N. Abrams |year=1977 |isbn=0-8109-0626-0 |location=New York |pages=567 |quote=The Roman theater survives virtually intact... scarcely another surviving theater gives a better impression of just how the Roman theater - a solid single unified structure - differed from the Greek theater, which was made up of separate structures juxtaposed but each isolated and complete in itself.}}</ref> With a diameter of 96&nbsp;metres (315&nbsp;ft), it provided seating for 7,000.<ref name=roth>{{cite book | first=Leland M. | last=Roth | year=1993 | title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning | edition=First | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | isbn=0-06-430158-3 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth }}</ref> 
Even though, the recent Aspendus Culture and Film Festival has shown that it can hold over 20,000.<ref name=WhitmanCollege>{{cite web |url=https://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/aspendus/commentary/aspendus.commentary.htm |title=The Roman Theatre at Aspendus |access-date=2024-01-19 |author=Whitman College |date= |language=en }}</ref>
It was built in 155<ref name=roth/> by the Greek architect Zenon, a native of the city. It was periodically repaired by the [[Seljuqs]], who used it as a [[caravanserai]], and in the 13th century the stage building was converted into a palace by the [[Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuqs of Rum]].<ref>Scott Redford, "The Seljuqs of Rum and the Antique," ''Muqarnas'', Vol. 10, Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar. (1993), p. 151.</ref>[[File:Aspendos Stadium 4652.jpg|thumb|The Stadium]]

As was usual to minimise construction complexity and cost, part of the theatre was built against the hill where the [[Citadel]] ([[Acropolis]]) stood, while the remainder was built on vaulted arches. The high stage, whose supporting columns are still in place,<ref name="EB1911"/> served to seemingly isolate the audience from the rest of the world. The ''[[scaenae frons]]'', or backdrop, has remained intact. The 8.1&nbsp;metre (27&nbsp;ft) sloping reflective wooden ceiling over the stage has been lost over time. Post holes for 58 masts are found in the upper level of the theatre. These masts supported a ''[[velarium]]'' or awning that could be pulled over the audience to provide shade.<ref name=roth/> The diameter of the orchestra is 23.87 meters and the height of the columnatio (stage backdrop) was 15.7 meters.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sear |first=Frank |author-link= |date= |title=Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study |url= |location= |publisher= |page=35 |isbn=}}</ref>

The unique 19&nbsp;km-long [[Roman aqueduct]] is possibly the most important monument, since the last 2&nbsp;km of the conduit is a well-preserved inverted siphon, rather than an open channel, which made this aqueduct famous.<ref>Kessener, H. P. M. (2000). The aqueduct at Aspendos and its inverted Siphon. American Journal of Archaeology 13, 105 - 132</ref> The siphon allowed shorter arches to be constructed at the expense of finding a way to contain the water pressure in the siphon in an era when large diameter piping was difficult to seal.[[File:Aspendos Roman aqueduct 6328 (4895307195).jpg|thumb|Roman aqueduct and siphon]] The siphon was split into three bridge sections 600, 900 and 150 m long, separated by 5.5 m square two towers where the aqueduct bends and where the water ascended and descended and which are today still 30 m high. The siphon was built on arches to cross the marshy valley between the hills and the town. The central section consisted of 46 arches up to 15 m high, 29 of which are still standing. The siphon was 40 m deep between the towers  leading to a pressure of 400kPa (4bar) in the pipes and delivered about 5600 m<sup>3</sup> per day. The pipes were carved blocks of limestone carefully fitted together to ensure a good seal using a mortar of lime and olive oil which expands when wet. It was built between the middle of the 2nd and end of the 3rd century. An inscription states Tiberius Claudius Italicus spent 2 million [[denarii]] to build an aqueduct here.

Nearby stand the remains of a stadium, baths, [[basilica]], [[agora]] and [[nymphaeum]]. The Roman [[Eurymedon Bridge (Aspendos)|Eurymedon Bridge]], reconstructed in the 13th century, is also in the vicinity.

==Coinage==
[[File:Pamphylia Aspendos Stater, Olympic Games scene.jpg|alt=Ancient coin from Aspendos|thumb|298x298px|Silver stater from Aspendos dated 370–333 BC.  Obverse: Olympic games-type scene: two wrestlers grappling, the letters delta and alpha between their legs; Reverse: Slinger, wearing short chiton, discharging sling to right, triskeles on right with feet clockwise; Size: 23.6mm]]

Aspendos was one of the earliest cities to mint coins. It began issuing coinage around 500&nbsp;BC, first [[stater]]s and later [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]s; "the slinger on the obverse represents the soldiery for which Aspendus was famous in antiquity,"<ref>''A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum'' (British Museum. Dept. of Coins and Medals, 1897), p. lxxii.</ref> the reverse frequently depicts a [[triskelion]]. The legend appears on early coins as the abbreviation ΕΣ or ΕΣΤϜΕ; later coinage has ΕΣΤϜΕΔΙΙΥΣ, the adjective from the city's local (Pamphylian) name Estwedus. The city's [[numismatics|numismatic]] history extends from archaic Greek to late Roman times.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=264 |title=Asia Minor Coins – Greek and Roman coins of Aspendos |access-date=2008-10-02 |archive-date=2011-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104114722/http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=264 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Bishopric ==

The Christian [[bishopric]] of Aspendus was a [[suffragan]] of the [[metropolitan see]] of [[Side, Turkey|Side]], the capital of the [[Roman province]] of [[Pamphylia Prima]], to which Aspendus belonged. Of its bishops, the names of four are recorded in extant documents: Domnus was at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, Tribonianus at the [[Council of Ephesus]] in 431, Timotheus at the 448 synod held by [[Flavian of Constantinople]], which condemned [[Eutyches]], and at the [[Robber Council of Ephesus]] held the same year, and Leo at the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787.<ref>Michel Lequien, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0agp0mJFG_sC ''Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus''], Paris 1740, Vol. I, coll. 1001–1002</ref><ref>Pius Bonifacius Gams, [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=65154&dirids=1 ''Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae''], Leipzig 1931, p.&nbsp;450</ref>

No longer a residential bishopric, Aspendus is today listed by the [[Catholic Church]] as a [[titular see]].<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 840</ref>

==Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival==
{{Main|Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival}}
The theatre hosts the annual [[Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival]] organized by [[Turkish State Opera and Ballet]] since 1994, with international participation of opera and ballet companies and an audience of about 10,000.

[[Dalida]] held her last concert there on 28 April 1987.

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Aspendos Market Hall 7349.jpg|Aspendos Agora and Market Hall
File:Aspendos Ornamental Gate 4726.jpg|The Ornamental Gate
File:Aspendos Aqueduct 3313.jpg|Roman aqueduct of Aspendos
File:Aspendos Basilica Antalya Turkey.jpg|The Basilica
File:Aspendos Eurymedon Bridge 4575.jpg|The Eurymedon Bridge
File:Aspendos Nymphaeum 4707.jpg|The Nymphaeum
File:Aspendos Temple 4658.jpg|Aspendos Temple
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|33em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Aspendos}}
*[http://www.adiyamanli.org/aspendos.html History of Aspendos]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070122221323/http://crydee.sai.msu.ru/album/trips/2006.06.Turkey/Aspendos/index.html Aspendos photos folder]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070225082118/http://maps.turkeyodyssey.com/city/maps_of_aspendos.php Maps of Aspendos]
*[http://www.turkeyinphotos.com/photos/aspendos/ Plan of the Aspendos Antic Theater]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090314020641/http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/aspendos/introduction/aspendso.intro1.htm The Theatre at Aspendos, The Ancient Theatre Archive, Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080312235846/http://www.livius.org/a/turkey/aspendus/aspendus01.html Livius.org: Aspendus]
*[http://www.zmetro.com/?p=5010 Aspendos html5/full screen panoramas taken December, 2012]
*[http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/aspendos Over 350 pictures from several visits]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130724033243/http://aspendosproject.com/index.html Aspendos Archaeological Project 2008 – ]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230511164916/https://toptenbestpicks.com/2023/03/top-ten-best-historical-places-in.html Top Ten Best Historical Places in Turkey including Aspendos checkout more detail]

{{Former settlements in Turkey}}
{{Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}
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[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Antalya Province]]
[[Category:Catholic titular sees in Asia]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Turkey]]
[[Category:Geography of Antalya Province]]
[[Category:Greek colonies in Anatolia]]
[[Category:Members of the Delian League]]
[[Category:Populated places in ancient Pamphylia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey]]
[[Category:Serik District]]