Editing Austronesian languages

{{Short description|Large language family mostly of Southeast Asia and the Pacific}}
{{Distinguish|Austroasiatic languages}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Austronesian
| region        = [[Taiwan]], [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], [[Madagascar]], parts of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], [[Hainan]] ([[China]]), and [[Oceania]]
| familycolor   = Austronesian
| protoname     = [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]]
| family        = One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]]
| child1        = {{Nowrap|[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]}}
| child2        = {{Nowrap|''[[Bunun language|Bunun]]''}}
| child3        = {{Nowrap|[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]}}
| child4        = {{Nowrap|[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]}}
| child5        = {{Nowrap|[[Northwest Formosan languages|Western Plains]]}}
| child6        = {{Nowrap|[[Northwest Formosan languages|Northwest Formosan]]}}
| child7        = {{Nowrap|''[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]''}}
| child8        = {{Nowrap|''[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]''}}
| child9        = {{Nowrap|''[[Rukai language|Rukai]]''}}
| child10       = {{Nowrap|[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]}}
| iso2          = map
| iso5          = map
| glotto        = aust1307
| glottorefname = Austronesian
| map           = File:Austroneske jazyky.jpg
| mapcaption    = {{center|Historical distribution of Austronesian languages}}
{{legend|#f90706|&nbsp;[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian branch]]}}
{{legend-line|#f90706 solid 2px|included islands and archipelagos}}
{{legend|#b418dd|&nbsp;[[Formosan languages|Formosan branch]]}}
{{legend-line|#b418dd solid 2px|included region}}
| ancestor      = 
| glottoname    = 
| notes         = 
| ethnicity     = [[Austronesian peoples]]
| speakers      = 328 million
| ref           = <ref name=Eth />
| date          = no date
}}

The '''Austronesian languages''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɔː|s|t|r|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ʒ|ən}} {{respell|AW|strə|NEE|zhən}}) are a [[language family]] widely spoken throughout [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], parts of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], [[Madagascar]], the islands of the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Taiwan]] (by [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Austronesian Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Austronesian-languages |access-date=26 October 2016 |last=Blust |first=Robert Andrew}}</ref> They are spoken by about 328 million people (4.4% of the [[world population]]).<ref name=Eth>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/| title=Statistical Summaries; Ethnologue}}</ref><ref name=eth>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/447/| title=Austronesian; Ethnologue}}</ref> This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include [[Malay language|Malay]] (around 250–270 million in Indonesia alone in its own literary standard named "[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]"),<ref>{{cite book|author-link=James Neil Sneddon|first=James Neil|last=Sneddon|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|publisher=UNSW Press|year=2004|page =14}})</ref> [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (standardized as [[Filipino language|Filipino]]),<ref>{{cite book|page=76|title=Language and Nationalism: The Philippine Experience Thus Far|ISBN=9711130009|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|location=Manila|first=Andrew B.|last=Gonzalez|year=1980}}</ref> [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] and [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]. According to some estimates, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Austronesian Languages|author=Robert Blust|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|year=2016|author-link=Robert Blust}}</ref>

In 1706, the Dutch scholar [[Adriaan Reland]] first observed similarities between the languages spoken in the [[Malay Archipelago]] and by peoples on islands in the Pacific Ocean.{{sfnp|Pereltsvaig|2018|p=143}} In the 19th century, researchers (e.g. [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Herman Neubronner van der Tuuk|Herman van der Tuuk]]) started to apply the [[comparative method]] to the Austronesian languages. The first extensive study on the history of the [[phonology]] was made by the German linguist [[Otto Dempwolff]].<ref name="Dempwolff">{{cite book|last=Dempwolff|first=Otto |title=Vergleichende Lautlehre des austronesischen Wortschatzes|trans-title=Comparative phonology of the Austronesian vocabularies|series=Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Eingeborenen-Sprachen (Supplements to the Journal of Native Languages) 15; 17; 19|location=Berlin|publisher=Dietrich Reimer|language=de|type=3 vols}}</ref> It included a reconstruction of the [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] lexicon. The term ''Austronesian'' was coined (as German ''{{Lang|de|austronesisch}}'') by [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]], deriving it from [[Latin]] ''{{Wikt-lang|la|auster}}'' "south" and [[Ancient Greek]] ''{{Wikt-lang|grc|νῆσος}}'' ({{lang|grc|nêsos}} "island"), meaning the "Southern Island languages".<ref>{{cite book|title=Official Oxford English Dictionary (OED2)|editor1=[[John Simpson (lexicographer)|John Simpson]]|editor2=[[Edmund Weiner]]|type=Dictionary|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1989}}</ref>

Most Austronesian languages are spoken by the people of [[Insular Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. Only a few languages, such as [[Urak Lawoiʼ language|Urak Lawoiʼ]] and the [[Chamic languages]] (except [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]), are [[indigenous language|indigenous]] to mainland Asia, or [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] which is the only Austronesian language indigenous to Insular East Africa. There are few Austronesian languages which have populations exceeding a few thousand, but a handful have speaking populations in the millions. For example, Indonesian is spoken by around 252 million people.<ref>{{Ethnologue28|ind}}</ref> This makes it the tenth [[lists of languages by number of speakers|most-spoken language in the world]]. Approximately twenty Austronesian languages are [[official language|official]] in their respective countries (see the [[list of major and official Austronesian languages]]).

By the number of languages they include, Austronesian and [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] are the two largest language families in the world. They each contain roughly one-fifth of the world's languages. The geographical span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family in the first half of the second millennium CE, before the spread of [[Indo-European languages]] in the [[European colonization|colonial period]]. It ranged from Madagascar to [[Easter Island]] in the eastern Pacific.

According to [[Robert Blust]] (1999), Austronesian is divided into several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively in Taiwan. The [[Formosan languages]] of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside the Taiwan mainland (including its offshore [[Yami language]]) belong to the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] (sometimes called ''Extra-Formosan'') branch.

Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation. The oldest inscription in the [[Cham language]], the [[Đông Yên Châu inscription]] dated to {{circa|350}} AD, is the first attestation of any Austronesian language.

==Typological characteristics==
===Phonology===
The Austronesian languages overall possess [[phoneme]] inventories which are smaller than the world average. Around 90% of the Austronesian languages have inventories of 19–25 sounds (15–20 consonants and 4–5 vowels), thus lying at the lower end of the global typical range of 20–37 sounds. However, extreme inventories are also found, such as [[Nemi language|Nemi]] ([[New Caledonia]]) with 43 consonants.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|p=169}}

The canonical root type in [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] is disyllabic with the shape CV(C)CVC (C = consonant; V = vowel), and is still found in many Austronesian languages.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|p=212}} In most languages, consonant clusters are only allowed in medial position, and often, there are restrictions for the first element of the cluster.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=215–218}} There is a common [[Drift (linguistics)|drift]] to reduce the number of consonants which can appear in final position, e.g. [[Buginese language|Buginese]], which only allows the two consonants /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ as finals, out of a total number of 18 consonants. Complete absence of final consonants is observed e.g. in [[Nias language|Nias]], [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] and many [[Oceanic languages]].{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=220–222}}

[[Tone (linguistics)|Tonal contrasts]] are rare in Austronesian languages,{{sfnp|Crowley|2009|p=100}} although [[Moklenic languages|Moken–Moklen]] and a few languages of the [[Chamic languages|Chamic]], [[South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages|South Halmahera–West New Guinea]] and [[New Caledonian languages|New Caledonian]] subgroups do show lexical tone.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=188–189, 200, 206}}

===Morphology===
Most Austronesian languages are [[Agglutination|agglutinative languages]] with a relatively high number of [[affix]]es, and clear morpheme boundaries.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|p=355}} Most affixes are [[prefix]]es ([[Malay language|Malay]] ''ber-jalan'' 'walk' < ''jalan'' 'road'), with a smaller number of [[suffix]]es ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] ''titis-án'' 'ashtray' < ''títis'' 'ash') and [[infix]]es ([[Roviana language|Roviana]] ''t<in>avete'' 'work (noun)' < ''tavete'' 'work (verb)').{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=370–399}}

[[Reduplication]] is commonly employed in Austronesian languages. This includes full reduplication ([[Malay language|Malay]] ''anak-anak'' 'children' < ''anak'' 'child'; [[Karo Batak language|Karo Batak]] ''nipe-nipe'' 'caterpillar' < ''nipe'' 'snake') or partial reduplication ([[Central Cagayan Agta language|Agta]] ''taktakki'' 'legs' < ''takki'' 'leg', ''at-atu'' 'puppy' < ''atu'' 'dog').{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=406–431}}

===Syntax===
[[File:Hawaii Banknote 5 Dollars c 1839.jpg|thumb|A 5 dollar banknote, Hawaii, {{Circa|1839}}, using the [[Hawaiian language]]]]
It is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. Very broadly, one can divide the Austronesian languages into three groups: Philippine-type languages, Indonesian-type languages and post-Indonesian type languages:{{sfnp|Ross|2002|p=453}}
* The first group includes, besides the languages of the [[Philippines]], the Austronesian languages of Taiwan, Sabah, North Sulawesi and Madagascar. It is primarily characterized by the retention of the original system of [[Austronesian alignment|Philippine-type voice alternations]], where typically three or four verb voices determine which [[thematic relation|semantic role]] the "subject"/"topic" expresses (it may express either the actor, the patient, the location and the beneficiary, or various other circumstantial roles such as instrument and concomitant). The phenomenon has frequently been referred to as ''focus'' (not to be confused with the [[focus (linguistics)|usual sense]] of that term in linguistics). Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the [[definiteness]] of the participants. The word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial.
* In contrast, the more innovative Indonesian-type languages, which are particularly represented in Malaysia and western Indonesia, have reduced the voice system to a contrast between only two voices (actor voice and "undergoer" voice), but these are supplemented by [[applicative voice|applicative]] morphological devices (originally two: the more direct *''-i'' and more oblique *''-an/-[a]kən''), which serve to modify the semantic role of the "undergoer". They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns. Unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the [[Batak languages]], [[Old Javanese]], [[Balinese language|Balinese]], [[Sasak language|Sasak]] and several Sulawesi languages seem to represent an intermediate stage between these two types.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adelaar|first1=K. Alexander|first2=Nikolaus|last2=Himmelmann|year=2005|title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|pages=6–7|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415681537}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Croft|first=William|year=2012|title=Verbs: Aspect and Causal Structure|page=261|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199248599}}</ref>
* Finally, in some languages, which Ross calls "post-Indonesian", the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions.

==Lexicon==
{{main|Proto-Austronesian language#Vocabulary}}
The Austronesian language family has been established by the linguistic comparative method on the basis of [[cognate|cognate sets]], sets of words from multiple languages, which are similar in sound and meaning which can be shown to be descended from the same ancestral word in [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] according to regular rules. Some cognate sets are very stable. The word for ''eye'' in many Austronesian languages is ''mata'' (from the most northerly Austronesian languages, [[Formosan languages]] such as [[Bunun language|Bunun]] and [[Amis language|Amis]] all the way south to [[Māori language|Māori]]).{{sfn|Greenhill|Blust|Gray|2003–2019}}

Other words are harder to reconstruct. The word for ''two'' is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms (e.g. [[Bunun language|Bunun]] ''dusa''; [[Amis language|Amis]] ''tusa''; [[Māori language|Māori]] ''rua'') require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The [[Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database]] gives word lists (coded for cognateness) for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages.{{sfn|Greenhill|Blust|Gray|2003–2019}}

==Classification==<!--linked from [[Austro-Tai]]-->
[[File:Austronesian family.png|thumb|upright=1.8|The distribution of the Austronesian languages, per Blust (1999). Western Malayo-Polynesian and Central Malayo-Polynesian are no longer accepted.]]
The internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex. The family consists of many similar and closely related languages with large numbers of [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]], making it difficult to recognize boundaries between branches. The first major step towards high-order subgrouping was Dempwolff's recognition of the [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] subgroup (called ''Melanesisch'' by Dempwolff).<ref name=Dempwolff/> The special position of the languages of Taiwan was first recognized by [[André-Georges Haudricourt]] (1965),{{sfnp|Haudricourt|1965|p=315}} who divided the Austronesian languages into three subgroups: Northern Austronesian (= [[Formosan languages|Formosan]]), Eastern Austronesian (= [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]), and Western Austronesian (all remaining languages).

In a study that represents the first [[Lexicostatistics|lexicostatistical]] classification of the Austronesian languages, [[Isidore Dyen]] (1965) presented a radically different subgrouping scheme.{{sfnp|Dyen|1965}} He posited 40 first-order subgroups, with the highest degree of diversity found in the area of [[Melanesia]]. The Oceanic languages are not recognized, but are distributed over more than 30 of his proposed first-order subgroups. Dyen's classification was widely criticized and for the most part rejected,{{sfnp|Grace|1966}} but several of his lower-order subgroups are still accepted (e.g. the [[Cordilleran languages]], the [[Bilic languages]] or the [[Murutic languages]]).

Subsequently, the position of the Formosan languages as the most archaic group of Austronesian languages was recognized by [[Otto Christian Dahl]] (1973),{{sfnp|Dahl|1973}} followed by proposals from other scholars that the Formosan languages actually make up more than one first-order subgroup of Austronesian. [[Robert Blust]] (1977) first presented the subgrouping model which is currently accepted by virtually all scholars in the field,{{sfnp|Blust|1977}} with more than one first-order subgroup on Taiwan, and a single first-order branch encompassing all Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan, viz. [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]. The relationships of the Formosan languages to each other and the internal structure of Malayo-Polynesian continue to be debated.

===Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)===
In addition to [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]], thirteen [[Formosan languages|Formosan subgroups]] are broadly accepted. The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is {{Harvcoltxt|Blust|1999}}. Prominent Formosanists (linguists who specialize in Formosan languages) take issue with some of its details, but it remains the point of reference for current linguistic analyses. Debate centers primarily around the relationships between these families. Of the classifications presented here, {{Harvcoltxt|Blust|1999}} links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, while {{harvp|Li|2008}} also links five families into a Northern Formosan group. Harvey (1982), Chang (2006) and Ross (2012) split Tsouic, and Blust (2013) agrees the group is probably not valid.

Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of [[Paiwanic languages|Paiwanic]], Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming originally from an island called ''Sinasay'' or ''Sanasay''.{{sfnp|Li|2004}} The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from the east, and were treated by the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group.<ref>{{cite journal    | title=A ramble through southern Formosa
                    | last1=Taylor | first1=G.
                    | year=1888
                    | journal=The China Review | volume=16 | pages=137–161
                    | quote =The Tipuns...&nbsp;are certainly descended from emigrants, and I have not the least doubt but that the Amias are of similar origin; only of later date, and most probably from the Mejaco Simas [that is, [[Miyako-jima]]], a group of islands lying 110 miles to the North-east....&nbsp;By all accounts the old Pilam savages, who merged into the Tipuns, were the first settlers on the plain; then came the Tipuns, and a long time afterwards the Amias. The Tipuns, for some time, acknowledged the Pilam Chief as supreme, but soon absorbed both the chieftainship and the people, in fact the only trace left of them now, is a few words peculiar to the Pilam village, one of which, makan (to eat), is pure Malay. The Amias submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of the Tipuns.}}</ref>

==== Blust (1999) ====
[[File:Formosan languages en.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Families of Formosan languages before Minnanese colonization of Taiwan, per Blust (1999)]]

{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
{{tree list}}
*'''Formosan'''
**{{legend|#FFF9A5|'''[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]'''<br>(abandoned in Blust 2013)}}
*** [[Tsou language]]
*** [[Saaroa language]]
*** [[Kanakanavu language]]
**{{legend|#FECCA0|'''Western Plains''' }}
*** [[Thao language]] {{aka}} Sao: Brawbaw and Shtafari dialects
*** Central Western Plains
**** [[Babuza language]]; old [[Favorlang language]]: Taokas and Poavosa dialects
**** [[Papora-Hoanya language]]: Papora, Hoanya dialects
**{{legend|#FEA4A4|'''Northwest Formosan'''}}
*** [[Saisiyat language]]: Taai and Tungho dialects
*** [[Pazeh language]] and [[Kulun language|Kulun]]
**{{legend|#9FD8B3|'''[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]''' }}
*** [[Atayal language]]
*** [[Seediq language]] {{aka}} Truku/Taroko
**{{legend|#CBA6CB|'''[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]'''<br>(based on a single merger, of pAN *n and *j)}}
*** Northern (Kavalanic languages)
**** [[Basay language]]: Trobiawa and Linaw–Qauqaut dialects
**** [[Kavalan language]]
**** [[Ketagalan language]], or Ketangalan
*** Central ([[Amis language|Ami]])
**** [[Amis language|Amis proper]]
**** [[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]
*** [[Siraya language]]
**{{legend|#B7DF86|'''[[Bunun language]]''' }}
**{{legend|#E2E17F|'''[[Rukai language]]''' }}
*** Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects of [[Rukai language|Rukai]] are divergent
**{{legend|#D3FE00|'''[[Puyuma language]]''' }}
**{{legend|#E1FEEB|'''[[Paiwan language]]''' (south-eastern tip of Formosa)}}
**(outside Formosa)
**{{legend|#DF7575|'''[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]'''}}
{{tree list/end}}
{{div col end}}

==== Li (2008) ====
[[File:Formosan languages 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Families of Formosan languages before Minnanese colonization, per {{harvp|Li|2008}}. The three languages in green (Bunun, Puyuma, Paiwan) may form a Southern Formosan branch, but this is uncertain.]]
This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. {{harvp|Li|2008}} proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and equates it with [[Proto-Austronesian]] (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995).<ref name="Starosta">{{cite book|last=Starosta|first=S|date=1995|chapter=A grammatical subgrouping of Formosan languages|editor1-link=Li Jen-kuei|editor1=P. Li|editor2=Cheng-hwa Tsang|editor3=Ying-kuei Huang|editor4-link=Dah-an Ho|editor4=Dah-an Ho|editor5=Chiu-yu Tseng|name-list-style=amp|title=Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan|pages=683–726|publication-place=Taipei|publisher=Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica}}</ref> Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the position of Rukai is highly controversial.<ref>{{harvp|Li|2008|p=216}}: "The position of Rukai is the most controversial: Tsuchida... treats it as more closely related to Tsouic languages, based on lexicostatistic evidence, while Ho... believes it to be one of the Paiwanic languages, i.e. part of my Southern group, as based on a comparison of fourteen grammatical features. In fact, Japanese anthropologists did not distinguish between Rukai, Paiwan and Puyuma in the early stage of their studies"</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
{{tree list}}
*'''Formosan'''
** F0: '''Proto-Formosan''' = '''Proto-Austronesian'''
*** {{legend|#FEA4A4|'''[[Rukai language|Rukai]]'''}}
**** Mantauran
**** Maga–Tona, Budai–Labuan–Taromak
** F1: ''(unnamed branch)''
*** {{legend|#FFF9A5|'''Central ([[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]])'''}}
**** [[Tsou language|Tsou]]
**** Southern Tsouic
***** [[Saaroa language|Saaroa]]
***** [[Kanakanavu language|Kanakanavu]]
** F2: ''(unnamed branch)''
*** {{legend|#FECCA0|'''[[Northern Formosan languages|Northern Formosan]]'''}}
**** Northwestern (Plains)
***** [[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]–[[Kulon language|Kulon]], [[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]
***** Western
****** [[Thao language|Thao]]
****** West Coast ([[Papora language|Papora]]–[[Hoanya language|Hoanya]]–[[Babuza language|Babuza]]–Taokas)
**** [[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]
***** [[Atayal language|Squliq Atayal]]
***** [[Atayal language|Ts'ole' Atayal]] (= C'uli')
***** [[Seediq language|Seediq]]
*** {{legend|#CBA6CB|'''[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]'''}}
**** [[Kavalan language|Kavalan]]–[[Basay language|Basay]]
**** [[Siraya language|Siraya]]–[[Amis language|Amis]]–[[Nataoran language|Nataoran]]
**** [[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]
*** ? '''Southern''' [uncertain]
**** {{legend|#B7DF86|[[Bunun language|Bunun]]}}
***** Isbukun
***** Northern and Central (Takitudu and Takbanuaz)
**** {{legend|#9FD8B3|[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]–[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]] [uncertain]}}
{{tree list/end}}
{{Div col end}}

===={{vanchor|Sagart}} (2004, 2021)====
[[File:Formosan languages Sagart 2021.png|thumb|Nested branches of Austronesian languages according to Sagart. Languages colored red are outside the other branches but are not subgrouped. Kradai and Malayo-Polynesian would also be purple.]]
Sagart (2004) proposes that the numerals of the Formosan languages reflect a nested series of innovations, from languages in the northwest (near the putative landfall of the Austronesian migration from the mainland), which share only the numerals 1–4 with proto-Malayo-Polynesian, counter-clockwise to the eastern languages (purple on map), which share all numerals 1–10. Sagart (2021) finds other shared innovations that follow the same pattern. He proposes that pMP *lima 'five' is a lexical replacement (from 'hand'), and that pMP *pitu 'seven', *walu 'eight' and *Siwa 'nine' are contractions of pAN *RaCep 'five', a ligature *a or *i 'and', and *duSa 'two', *telu 'three', *Sepat 'four', an analogical pattern historically attested from [[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]. The fact that the [[Kradai languages]] share the numeral system (and other lexical innovations) of pMP suggests that they are a coordinate branch with Malayo-Polynesian, rather than a sister family to Austronesian.<ref>Laurent Sagart (2004) The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai</ref><ref>Laurent Sagart (2021) A more detailed early Austronesian phylogeny. Plenary talk at the 15th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics.</ref>

Sagart's resulting classification is:<ref>The tree can be found at the following link. Click on the nodes to see the proposed shared innovations for each. <br>{{cite web | url = https://f-origin.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/3902/files/2020/12/Clickable-Austronesian-phylogeny_2020-.pdf | title = Shared innovations in early Austronesian phylogeny | author = Laurent Sagart | date = July 2021}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Austronesian''' (pAN ca. 5200 BP)
** {{legend|#df3b75|[[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]}}
** {{legend|#DF7575|[[Luilang language|Luilang]]}}
** {{legend|#FEA4A4|[[Pazeh language|Pazeh]], [[Kulon language|Kulon]]<br>(These four languages are outside Pituish, but Sagart is ambivalent as to any relationship among them, other than retaining Blust's connection between Pazeh and Kulon)}}
** '''Pituish''' <br>(pAN *RaCepituSa 'five-and-two' truncated to *pitu 'seven'; *sa-ŋ-aCu 'nine' [lit. one taken away])
*** {{legend|#FECCA0|[[Favorlang language|Favorlang]]–[[Taokas language|Taokas]]}}
*** '''Limaish''' <br>(pAN *RaCep 'five' replaced by *lima 'hand'; *Ca~ reduplication to form the series of numerals for counting humans)
**** {{legend|#FFF9A5|[[Thao language|Thao]]–[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]}}
**** '''Enemish''' <br>(additive 'five-and-one' or 'twice-three' replaced by reduplicated *Nem-Nem > *emnem [*Nem 'three' is reflected in Basay, Siraya and Makatao]; pAN *kawaS 'year, sky' replaced by *CawiN)
***** {{legend|#D3FE00|[[Siraya language|Siraya]]}}
***** '''Walu-Siwaish'''<br>(*walu 'eight' and *Siwa 'nine' from *RaCepat(e)lu 'five-and-three' and *RaCepiSepat 'five-and-four')
****** {{legend|#B7DF86|West WS: [[Papora language|Papora]]–[[Hoanya language|Hoanya]] <br>(pAN *Sapuy 'fire' replaced by *[Z]apuR 'cooking fire'; pAN *qudem 'black replaced by *abi[Z]u, found in MP as 'blue')}}
****** {{legend|#9FD8B3|Central WS<br>(pAN *isa etc. 'one' replaced by *Ca~CiNi (reduplication of 'alone') in the human-counting series; pAN *iCit 'ten' replaced by *ma-sa-N 'one times'.)}}
******* [[Bunun language|Bunun]]
******* [[Rukai language|Rukai]]–[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]<br>(CV~ reduplication in human-counting series replaced with competing pAN noun-marker *u- [unknown whether Bunun once had the same]; eleven lexical innovations such as *cáni 'one', *kəku 'leg')
****** East WS (pEWS ca. 4500 BP)<br>(innovations *baCaq-an 'ten'; *nanum 'water' alongside pAN *daNum)
******* {{legend|#86A6C8|[[Kavalanic languages]]}}
******* {{legend|#CBA6CB|'''Puluqish'''<br>(innovative *sa-puluq 'ten', from *sa- 'one' + 'separate, set aside'; use of prefixes *paka- and *maka- to mark [[abilitative]])}}
******** Northern: [[Amis language|Ami]]–[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]<br>(*sasay 'one'; *mukeCep 'ten' for the human and non-human series; *ukak 'bone', *kuCem 'cloud')
******** [[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]
******** Southern Austronesian (pSAN ca. 4000 BP)<br>(linker *atu 'and' > *at after *sa-puluq in numerals 11–19; lexical innovations such as *baqbaq 'mouth', *qa-sáuŋ 'canine tooth', *qi(d)zúR 'saliva', *píntu 'door', *-ŋel 'deaf')
********* [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra-Dai]]
********* [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Malayo-Polynesian===
{{main|Malayo-Polynesian languages}}
The Malayo-Polynesian languages are—among other things—characterized by certain sound changes, such as the mergers of [[Proto-Austronesian]] (PAN) *t/*C to [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] (PMP) *t, and PAN *n/*N to PMP *n, and the shift of PAN *S to PMP *h.{{sfnp|Blust|2013|p=742}}

There appear to have been two great migrations of Austronesian languages that quickly covered large areas, resulting in multiple local groups with little large-scale structure. The first was Malayo-Polynesian, distributed across the [[Malay archipelago]] and [[Melanesia]]. The second migration was that of the [[Oceanic languages]] into Polynesia and Micronesia.{{sfnp|Greenhill|Blust|Gray|2008}}

==Major languages==
{{Main|List of major and official Austronesian languages}}

==History{{anchor|Homeland}}==
{{Further|Austronesian peoples#Migration from Taiwan{{!}}Austronesian expansion}}

[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|A map of the Austronesian expansion. Periods are based on archeological studies, though the association of the archeological record and linguistic reconstructions is disputed.|center|800x800px]]

From the standpoint of [[historical linguistics]], the place of origin (in linguistic terminology, ''[[Urheimat]]'') of the Austronesian languages ([[Proto-Austronesian language]]) is most likely the [[Taiwan|main island of Taiwan]], also known as Formosa; on this island the deepest divisions in Austronesian are found along small geographic distances, among the families of the native [[Formosan languages]].

According to [[Robert Blust]], the Formosan languages form nine of the ten primary branches of the Austronesian language family.{{sfnp|Sagart|2002}} {{Harvcoltxt|Comrie|2001|p=28}} noted this when he wrote: <blockquote>... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is greater than that in all the rest of Austronesian put together, so there is a major [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic]] split within Austronesian between Formosan and the rest... Indeed, the genetic diversity within Formosan is so great that it may well consist of several primary branches of the overall Austronesian family.</blockquote>At least since {{harvcoltxt|Sapir|1968}}, writing in 1949, linguists have generally accepted that the chronology of the dispersal of languages within a given language family can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to that of the least. For example, English in North America has large numbers of speakers, but relatively low dialectal diversity, while English in Great Britain has much higher diversity; such low linguistic variety by Sapir's thesis suggests a more recent spread of English in North America. While some scholars suspect that the number of principal branches among the Formosan languages may be somewhat less than Blust's estimate of nine (e.g. {{Harvcolnb|Li|2006}}), there is little contention among linguists with this analysis and the resulting view of the origin and direction of the migration. For a recent dissenting analysis, see {{harvcoltxt|Peiros|2004}}.

The [[Austronesian peoples#Prehistory|protohistory of the Austronesian people]] can be traced farther back through time. To get an idea of the original homeland of the populations ancestral to the Austronesian peoples (as opposed to strictly linguistic arguments), evidence from archaeology and [[population genetics]] may be adduced. Studies from the science of genetics have produced conflicting outcomes. Some researchers find evidence for a proto-Austronesian homeland on the Asian mainland (e.g., {{Harvcolnb|Melton et al.|1998}}), while others mirror the linguistic research, rejecting an East Asian origin in favor of Taiwan (e.g., {{Harvcolnb|Trejaut et al.|2005}}). Archaeological evidence (e.g., {{Harvcolnb|Bellwood|1997}}) is more consistent, suggesting that the ancestors of the Austronesians spread from the South Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago.

Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring peoples migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire region encompassed by the Austronesian languages.{{sfnp|Diamond|2000}} It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago.{{sfnp|Blust|1999}} However, evidence from historical linguistics cannot bridge the gap between those two periods. The view that linguistic evidence connects Austronesian languages to the Sino-Tibetan ones, as proposed for example by {{Harvcoltxt|Sagart|2002}}, is a minority one. As {{Harvcoltxt|Fox|2004|p=8}} states:<blockquote>Implied in... discussions of subgrouping [of Austronesian languages] is a broad consensus that the homeland of the Austronesians was in Taiwan. This homeland area may have also included the [[Penghu|P'eng-hu]] (Pescadores) islands between Taiwan and China and possibly even sites on the coast of mainland China, especially if one were to view the early Austronesians as a population of related dialect communities living in scattered coastal settlements.</blockquote>Linguistic analysis of the Proto-Austronesian language stops at the western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language(s) have not survived. The only exceptions, the [[Chamic languages]], derive from more recent migration to the mainland.{{sfnp|Thurgood|1999|p=225}} However, according to Ostapirat's interpretation of the seriously discussed [[Austro-Tai languages|Austro-Tai]] hypothesis, the [[Kra–Dai languages]] (also known as Tai–Kadai) are exactly those related mainland languages.

==Hypothesized relations==
[[File:Mainland pre-Austronesian cultures.png|350px|thumb|right|An example of hypothetical Pre-Austronesian migration waves to Taiwan from the mainland. (The Amis migration from the Philippines is controversial).]]
[[File:Map07TN.png|350px|thumb|right|Path of Migration and Division of Some of the Major Ethnicities with their genetically distinctive markers, adapted from Edmondson and Gregerson (2007:732) [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00033.x]. The sketched migration route ''M119-Baiyue'' from Southeast Asia corresponds to the southern origin hypothesis of early Austronesians.]]
Genealogical links have been proposed between Austronesian and various families of East and [[Southeast Asia]].

===Austro-Tai===
{{Main|Austro-Tai languages}}

An [[Austro-Tai languages|Austro-Tai]] proposal linking Austronesian and the [[Kra-Dai]] languages of the southeastern continental Asian mainland was first proposed by [[Paul K. Benedict]], and is supported by Weera Ostapirat, [[Roger Blench]], and Laurent Sagart, based on the traditional [[comparative method]]. {{Harvcoltxt|Ostapirat|2005}} proposes a series of regular correspondences linking the two families and assumes a primary split, with Kra-Dai speakers being the people who stayed behind in their Chinese homeland. {{harvcoltxt|Blench|2004}} suggests that, if the connection is valid, the relationship is unlikely to be one of two sister families. Rather, he suggests that [[proto-Kra-Dai]] speakers were Austronesians who migrated to [[Hainan]] Island and back to the mainland from the northern Philippines, and that their distinctiveness results from radical restructuring following contact with [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] and [[Sinitic language|Sinitic]]. An extended version of Austro-Tai was hypothesized by Benedict who added the [[Japonic languages]] to the proposal as well.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Solnit, David B.|title=Japanese/Austro-Tai By Paul K. Benedict (review)|journal=[[Language (journal)|Language]]|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|volume=687|number=1|pages=188–196|date=March 1992|doi=10.1353/lan.1992.0061|s2cid=141811621}}</ref>

===Austric===
{{Main|Austric languages}}

A link with the [[Austroasiatic languages]] in an '[[Austric]]' [[phylum (linguistics)|phylum]] is based mostly on typological evidence. However, there is also morphological evidence of a connection between the conservative [[Nicobarese languages]] and Austronesian languages of the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Robert Blust supports the hypothesis which connects the lower Yangtze neolithic Austro-Tai entity with the rice-cultivating Austro-Asiatic cultures, assuming the center of East Asian rice domestication, and putative Austric homeland, to be located in the Yunnan/Burma border area.{{sfn|Sagart|Hsu|Tsai|Hsing|2017|p = 188}} Under that view, there was an east-west genetic alignment, resulting from a rice-based population expansion, in the southern part of East Asia: Austroasiatic-Kra-Dai-Austronesian, with unrelated Sino-Tibetan occupying a more northerly tier.{{sfn|Sagart|Hsu|Tsai|Hsing|2017|p = 188}}

===Sino-Austronesian===
{{Main|Sino-Austronesian languages}}
French linguist and [[Sinology|Sinologist]] [[Laurent Sagart]] considers the Austronesian languages to be related to the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], and also groups the [[Kra–Dai languages]] as more closely related to the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]].<ref>{{cite book|last=van Driem|first=George|date=2005|chapter=Sino-Austronesian vs. Sino-Caucasian, Sino-Bodic vs. Sino-Tibetan, and Tibeto-Burman as default theory|title=Contemporary Issues in Nepalese Linguistics|publication-place=Kathmandu|publisher=Linguistic Society of Nepal|editor1=Yogendra Prasada Yadava|editor2=Govinda Bhattarai|editor3=Ram Raj Lohani|editor4=Balaram Prasain|editor5=Krishna Parajuli|pages=285–338 [304]|chapter-url=http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf|access-date=2010-10-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726012439/http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-26}}</ref> Sagart argues for a north-south genetic relationship between Chinese and Austronesian, based on sound correspondences in the basic vocabulary and morphological parallels.{{sfn|Sagart|Hsu|Tsai|Hsing|2017|p = 188}} Laurent Sagart (2017) concludes that the possession of the two kinds of millets{{efn|''Setaria italica'' and ''Panicum miliaceum''.}} in Taiwanese Austronesian languages (not just Setaria, as previously thought) places the pre-Austronesians in northeastern China, adjacent to the probable Sino-Tibetan homeland.{{sfn|Sagart|Hsu|Tsai|Hsing|2017|p = 188}} Ko et al.'s genetic research (2014) appears to support Laurent Sagart's linguistic proposal, pointing out that the exclusively Austronesian mtDNA E-haplogroup and the largely Sino-Tibetan M9a haplogroup are twin sisters, indicative of an intimate connection between the early Austronesian and Sino-Tibetan maternal gene pools, at least.{{sfn|Sagart|Hsu|Tsai|Hsing|2017|p = 189}}{{sfn|Ko|2014|pp = 426–436}} Additionally, results from Wei et al. (2017) are also in agreement with Sagart's proposal, in which their analyses show that the predominantly Austronesian Y-DNA haplogroup O3a2b*-P164(xM134) belongs to a newly defined haplogroup O3a2b2-N6 being widely distributed along the eastern coastal regions of Asia, from Korea to Vietnam.{{sfn|Wei|Yan|Teo|Huang|2017|pp = 1–12}} Sagart also groups the Austronesian languages in a recursive-like fashion, placing Kra-Dai as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. His methodology has been found to be spurious by his peers.{{sfnp|Winter|2010}}{{sfnp|Blust|2013|pp=710–713, 745–747}}

===Japanese===
{{Main|Classification of the Japonic languages#Proposals relating Japonic languages to Southeast Asian language families}}
Several linguists have proposed that [[Japanese language|Japanese]] is genetically related to the Austronesian family, cf. Benedict (1990), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967).

Some other linguists think it is more plausible that Japanese is not genetically related to the Austronesian languages, but instead was influenced by an Austronesian [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] or [[adstratum]].

Those who propose this scenario suggest that the Austronesian family once covered the islands to the north as well as to the south. [[Martine Robbeets]] (2017)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robbeets |first=Martine |year=2017 |title=Austronesian influence and Transeurasian ancestry in Japanese: A case of farming/language dispersal |journal=Language Dynamics and Change |volume=7 |issue=2 |doi=10.1163/22105832-00702005 |pages=210–251 |doi-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-8635-7 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> claims that Japanese genetically belongs to the "Transeurasian" (= [[Altaic languages|Macro-Altaic]]) languages, but underwent lexical influence from "para-Austronesian", a presumed sister language of [[Proto-Austronesian]].

The linguist Ann Kumar (2009) proposed that some Austronesians might have migrated to Japan, possibly an elite-group from [[Java]], and created the Japanese-hierarchical society. She also identifies 82 possible cognates between Austronesian and Japanese, however her theory remains very controversial.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Ann |year=2009 |title=Globalizing the Prehistory of Japan: Language, Genes and Civilization. |location=Oxford |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> The linguist [[Asya Pereltsvaig|Asha Pereltsvaig]] criticized Kumar's theory on several points.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The archaeological problem with that theory is that, contrary to the claim that there was no rice farming in China and Korea in [[Prehistory|prehistoric times]], excavations have indicated that rice farming has been practiced in this area since at least 5000 BC.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> There are also genetic problems. The pre-Yayoi Japanese lineage was not shared with Southeast Asians, but was shared with Northwest Chinese, [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] and [[Central Asians]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Linguistic problems were also pointed out. Kumar did not claim that Japanese was an Austronesian language derived from proto-Javanese language, but only that it provided a superstratum language for [[old Japanese]], based on 82 plausible Javanese-Japanese cognates, mostly related to rice farming.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web |date=2011-05-09 |title=Javanese influence on Japanese |url=https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/historical-linguistics/javanese-influence-on-japanese.html |access-date=2023-06-13 |website=Languages Of The World |language=en-US}}</ref>

===East Asian===
{{Main|East Asian languages}}
In 2001, [[Stanley Starosta]] proposed a new language family named [[East Asian languages|East Asian]], that includes all primary language families in the broader [[East Asia]] region except [[Japonic]] and [[Koreanic]]. This proposed family consists of two branches, Austronesian and Sino-Tibetan-Yangzian, with the [[Kra-Dai]] family considered to be a branch of Austronesian, and "Yangzian" to be a new sister branch of Sino-Tibetan consisting of the [[Austroasiatic]] and [[Hmong-Mien]] languages.<ref name="EastAsianOrigin">{{cite book | given = Stanley | surname = Starosta | chapter = Proto-East Asian and the origin and dispersal of languages of east and southeast Asia and the Pacific | pages = [https://archive.org/details/peoplingeastasia00blen/page/n210 182]–197 | title = The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics | url = https://archive.org/details/peoplingeastasia00blen | url-access = limited | editor-given1 = Laurent | editor-surname1 = Sagart | editor-given2 = Roger | editor-surname2 = Blench | editor-given3 = Alicia | editor-surname3 = Sanchez-Mazas | location = London | publisher = Routledge Curzon | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-415-32242-3 }}</ref> This proposal was further researched by linguists like Michael D. Larish in 2006, who also included the Japonic and Koreanic languages in the macrofamily. The proposal has since been adopted by linguists such as [[George van Driem]], albeit without the inclusion of Japonic and Koreanic.<ref>van Driem, George. 2018. "{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210110235952/https://himalayanlanguages.org/files/driem/pdfs/2018i.pdf The East Asian linguistic phylum: A reconstruction based on language and genes]}}", ''Journal of the Asiatic Society'', LX (4): 1–38.</ref>

===Ongan===
{{Main|Austronesian–Ongan languages}}
{{harvp|Blevins|2007}} proposed that the Austronesian and the [[Ongan languages|Ongan]] protolanguage are the descendants of an Austronesian–Ongan protolanguage.{{sfnp|Blevins|2007}} This view is not supported by mainstream linguists and remains very controversial. Robert Blust rejects Blevins' proposal as far-fetched and based solely on chance resemblances and methodologically flawed comparisons.{{sfnp|Blust|2014}}

==Writing systems==
{{see also|Writing systems of Southeast Asia}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Bali, Pura Besakih 1.jpg
| caption1          = A sign in [[Balinese script|Balinese]] and [[Latin script|Latin]] script at a [[Hindu]] temple in [[Bali]]
| image2            = Manuscript in Toba-Batak language, central Sumatra, early 1800s - Robert C. Williams Paper Museum - DSC00360.JPG
| caption2          = A manuscript from the early 1800s using the [[Batak]] script
| image3 =Rongorongo Schrift.jpg
| caption3 = [[Rongorongo]] glyph, assumed to be the writing system of the [[Rapa Nui language]]
}}

Most Austronesian languages have [[Latin script|Latin]]-based writing systems today. Some non-Latin-based writing systems are listed below.
* [[Brahmi script]]
** [[Kawi script]]
*** [[Balinese alphabet]] – used to write [[Balinese language|Balinese]], [[Old Javanese|Kawi]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Sasak language|Sasak]], and [[Sanskrit]].
*** [[Batak alphabet]] – used to write several [[Batak languages]].
*** [[Baybayin]] – used to write [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and several [[Languages of the Philippines|Philippine languages]].
*** [[Bima alphabet]] – once used to write the [[Bima language]].
*** [[Buhid alphabet]] – used to write [[Buhid language]].
*** [[Hanunó'o alphabet]] – used to write [[Hanuno'o language]].
*** [[Javanese script]] – used to write the [[Javanese language]] and several neighbouring languages like [[Madurese language|Madurese]].
*** [[Kerinci alphabet]] (''Kaganga'') – used to write the [[Kerinci language]].
*** [[Kulitan alphabet]] – used to write the [[Kapampangan language]].
*** [[Lampung alphabet]] – used to write [[Lampung language|Lampung]] and [[Komering language|Komering]].
*** [[Linggi alphabet]] – used to write [[Malay Peninsula|Peninsular Malayic]] languages. 
*** [[Lontara alphabet]] – used to write the [[Buginese language|Buginese]], [[Makassarese language|Makassarese]] and several languages of [[Sulawesi]].
*** [[Sundanese script]] – standardized script based on [[Old Sundanese script]], used to write the [[Sundanese language]].
*** [[Rejang alphabet]] – used to write the [[Rejangese language|Rejang language]].
*** [[Rencong alphabet]] – once used to write the [[Malay language]] in Sumatra.
*** [[Tagbanwa alphabet]] – once used to write various [[Palawan languages]].
*** [[Lontara script#Variants|Lota alphabet]] – used to write the [[Ende-Li'o language]].
** [[Cham alphabet]] – used to write [[Cham language]].
* [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic script]]
** [[Pegon alphabet]] – used to write [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] and [[Madurese language|Madurese]] as well as several smaller neighbouring languages.
** [[Jawi alphabet]] – used to write [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]], [[Banjar language|Banjar]], [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]], [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanao]], [[Tausug language|Tausug]], [[Cham language|Western Cham]] and others.
** [[Sorabe alphabet]] – once used to write several dialects of [[Malagasy language]].
* [[Hangul]] – used to write the [[Cia-Cia language]] but the project is no longer active.
* [[Dunging script|Dunging]] – used to write the [[Iban language]]
* [[Avoiuli]] – used to write the [[Raga language]].
* [[Eskayan script|Eskayan]] – used to write the [[Eskayan language]], a secret language based on [[Boholano language|Boholano]].
* [[Woleai script]] (Caroline Island script) – used to write the [[Carolinian language]] (Refaluwasch).
* [[Rongorongo]] – possibly used to write the [[Rapa Nui language]].
* [[Gagarit Abada alphabet|Gagarit Abada]] – used to write [[Dusunic languages]] but it was not widely used. 
* [[Gangga Melayu]] – used to write [[Perak Malay]] 
* [[Braille]] – used in [[Filipino language|Filipino]], [[Malaysian Malay|Malay]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Tolai language|Tolai]], [[Motu language|Motu]], [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], and many other Austronesian languages.

==Comparison charts==
Below are two charts [[Comparative linguistics|comparing]] list of numbers of 1–10 and thirteen words in Austronesian languages; spoken in [[Taiwan]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Mariana Islands]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Chams]] or [[Champa]] (in [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Vietnam]]), [[East Timor]], [[Papua Region|Papua]], [[New Zealand]], [[Hawaii]], [[Madagascar]], [[Borneo]], [[Kiribati]], [[Caroline Islands]], and [[Tuvalu]].

<div style="overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap" | Comparison chart-numerals
! Austronesian List of Numbers 1–10 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Proto-Austronesian]]
| || *əsa<br />*isa || *duSa || *təlu || *Səpat || *lima || *ənəm || *pitu || *walu || *Siwa || *(sa-)puluq
|- style="text-align: center;"
! ''[[Formosan languages]]''
! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Atayal language|Atayal]]
| || qutux|| sazing || cyugal || payat || magal || mtzyu / tzyu || mpitu / pitu || mspat / spat || mqeru / qeru || mopuw / mpuw
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Seediq language|Seediq]]
| || kingal|| daha || teru || sepac || rima || mmteru || mpitu || mmsepac || mngari || maxal
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Truku language|Truku]]
| || kingal|| dha || tru || spat || rima || mataru || empitu || maspat || mngari || maxal
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Thao language|Thao]]
| || taha|| tusha || turu || shpat || tarima || katuru || pitu || kashpat || tanathu || makthin
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Papora language|Papora]]
|
|tanu
|nya
|tul
|pat
|lima
|minum
|pitu
|mehal
|mesi
|metsi
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Hoanya language|Hoanya]]
|
|mital
|misa
|miru
|mipal
|lima
|rom
|pito
|talo
|asia
|myataisi
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Babuza language|Babuza]]
|
|nata
|naroa
|natool'a
|napat
|nahup
|natap
|natu
|maaspat
|nataxaxoan
|tsihet
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Favorlang language|Favorlang]]
|
|natta
|narroa
|natorra
|naspat
|nachab
|nataap
|naito
|maaspat
|tannacho
|tschiet
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Taokas language|Taokas]]
|
|tatanu
|rua
|tool'a
|lapat
|hasap
|tahap
|yuweto
|mahalpat
|tanaso
|tais'id
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]/[[Kaxabu language|Kaxabu]]
|
|adang
|dusa
|tu'u
|supat
|xasep
|xasebuza
|xasebidusa
|xasebitu'u
|xasebisupat
|isit
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]
| || 'aeihae' || roSa' || to:lo' || Sopat || haseb || SayboSi: || {{nowrap|SayboSi: 'aeihae'}} || maykaSpat || hae'hae' || lampez / langpez
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tsou language|Tsou]]
| || coni|| yuso || tuyu || sʉptʉ || eimo || nomʉ || pitu || voyu || sio || maskʉ
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Saaroa language|Hla'alua]]
| || canni|| suua || tuulu || paatʉ || kulima || kʉnʉmʉ || kupitu || kualu || kusia || kumaahlʉ
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Kanakanavu language|Kanakanavu]]
| || cani|| cusa || turu || sʉʉpatʉ || rima || nʉmʉ || pitu || aru || sia || maan
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Bunun language|Bunun]]
| || tasʔa|| dusa || tau || paat || hima || nuum || pitu || vau || siva || masʔan
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Rukai language|Rukai]]
| || itha|| drusa || tulru || supate || lrima || eneme || pitu || valru || bangate || pulruku / mangealre
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]
| || ita|| drusa || tjelu || sepatj || lima || enem || pitju || alu || siva || tapuluq
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]
| || sa || druwa || telu || pat || lima || unem || pitu || walu || iwa || pulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Kavalan language|Kavalan]]
| || usiq|| uzusa || utulu || uspat || ulima || unem || upitu || uwalu || usiwa || rabtin
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Basay language|Basay]]
|
|tsa
|lusa
|tsu
|səpat
|tsjima
|anəm
|pitu
|wasu
|siwa
|labatan
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Amis language|Amis]]
| || cecay|| tosa || tolo || spat || lima || enem || pito || falo || siwa || pulu' / mo^tep
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]
| || cacay|| tosa || tolo || sepat || lima || enem || pito || walo || siwa || cacay a bataan
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Siraya language|Siraya]]
|
|sasaat
|duha
|turu
|tapat
|tu-rima
|tu-num
|pitu
|pipa
|kuda
|keteng
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Taivoan language|Taivoan]]
|
|tsaha'
|ruha
|toho
|paha'
|hima
|lom
|kito'
|kipa'
|matuha
|kaipien
|- style="text-align: center;"
|[[Makatao dialect|Makatao]]
|
|na-saad
|ra-ruha
|ra-ruma
|ra-sipat
|ra-lima
|ra-hurum
|ra-pito
|ra-haru
|ra-siwa
|ra-kaitian
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Qauqaut language|Qauqaut]]
| || ca || lusa || cuu || səpat || cima || anəm || pitu || wacu || siwa || labatan
|- style="text-align: center;"
! ''[[Malayo-Polynesian languages]]''
! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|- style="text-align: center;"
| '''[[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]]'''
| || *əsa<br>*isa || *duha || *təlu || *əpat || *lima || *ənəm || *pitu || *walu || *siwa || *puluq
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Yami language|Yami(Tao)]]
| || asa|| adoa || atlo || apat || alima || anem || apito || awao || asiam || asa ngernan
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| sifar <br /> soh|| sa || duwa || lhee || peuet || limong || nam || tujoh || lapan || sikureueng || siploh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Balinese language|Balinese]]{{ref|a|a}}
| [[File:Bali 0.png|center|20px]] <br> nul || [[File:Bali 1.png|center|20px]] <br> siki<br>besik || [[File:Bali 2, Lalenga.png|center|20px]] <br> kalih<br>dua || [[File:Bali 3-vowel O.png|center|20px]] <br> tiga<br>telu || [[File:Bali 4.png|center|20px]] <br> papat || [[File:Bali 5.png|center|20px]] <br> lima || [[File:Bali 6-vowel E kara.png|center|20px]] <br> nenem || [[File:Bali 7.png|center|20px]] <br> pitu || [[File:Bali 8, Pha.png|center|20px]] <br> kutus || [[File:Bali 9.png|center|20px]] <br> sia || dasa
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Banjar language|Banjar]]
| || asa || dua || talu || ampat || lima || anam || pitu || walu || sanga || sapuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Toba Batak language|Batak, Toba]]
| || sada || dua || tolu || opat || lima || onom || pitu || ualu || sia || sampulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Buginese language|Buginese]]
| || séddi || dua || tellu || eppa’ || lima || enneng || pitu || arua || aséra || seppulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Cia-Cia language|Cia-Cia]]
| || dise <br> ise || rua <br> ghua || tolu || pa'a || lima || no'o || picu || walu <br> oalu || siua || ompulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Cham language|Cham]]
| || sa || dua || klau || pak || lima || nam || tujuh || dalapan || salapan || sapluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Old Javanese language|Old Javanese]]<ref>Zoetmulder, P.J., Kamus Jawa Kuno-Indonesia. Vol. I-II. Terjemahan Darusuprapto-Sumarti Suprayitno. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1995.</ref>
| || siji <br> sa- || rwa || tĕlu || pāt || lima || nĕm || pitu || walu || sanga || sapuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Javanese language|Javanese]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/javanese.htm|title=Javanese alphabet (Carakan)|website=Omniglot}}</ref>
| nol || siji || loro|| telu || papat || lima || enem || pitu || wolu || sanga || sepuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay|Kelantan-Pattani]]
| kosong || so || duwo || tigo || pak || limo || ne || tujoh || lape || smile || spuloh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Komering language |Komering]]
| nul || osay || ruwa || tolu || pak || lima || nom || pitu || walu || suway || puluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Madurese language|Madurese]]
| nol || settong || dhuwa' || tello' || empa' || lema' || ennem || petto' || ballu' || sanga' || sapolo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Makassarese language|Makassarese]]
| lobbang <br> nolo'|| se're || rua || tallu || appa' || lima || annang || tuju ||  sangantuju || salapang || sampulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]/[[Malay language|Malay]]
| kosong <br />sifar<ref>from the [[Arabic]] صِفْر ''ṣifr''</ref> <br> nol<ref>Predominantly in Indonesia, comes from the [[Latin]] ''nullus''</ref>
| sa/se <br> satu <br> suatu || dua || tiga || empat || lima || enam || tujuh || delapan<br />lapan<ref>''lapan'' is a known contraction of ''delapan''; predominant in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei.</ref> || sembilan || sepuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]
| || ciek || duo || tigo || ampek || limo || anam || tujuah || salapan || sambilan || sapuluah
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Moken language|Moken]]
| || c<sup>h</sup>a:<sub>?</sub> || t<sup>h</sup>uwa:<sub>?</sub> || teloj <br> (təlɔy) || pa:t || lema:<sub>?</sub> || nam || luɟuːk || waloj <br> (walɔy) || ch''e''waj <br /> (cʰɛwaːy / sɛwaːy) || c<sup>e</sup>p'''o'''h
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Rejang language|Rejang]]
| || do || duai || tlau || pat || lêmo || num || tujuak || dêlapên || sêmbilan || sêpuluak
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Sasak language|Sasak]]
| || sekek || due || telo || empat || lime || enam || pituk || baluk || siwak || sepulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Old Sundanese language|Old Sundanese]]
| || sa-, hiji, ésé || dwa, dua || teulu || opat || lima || genep || tujuh || dalapan || salapan || sapuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
| enol || hiji || dua || tilu || opat || lima || genep || tujuh || dalapan || salapan || sapuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Terengganu Malay]]
| kosong || se || duwe || tige || pak || lime || nang || tujoh || lapang || smilang || spuloh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tetum language|Tetun]]
| nol || ida || rua || tolu || hat || lima || nen || hitu || ualu || sia || sanulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tsat language|Tsat (HuiHui)]]{{ref|c|c}}
| || {{IPA|sa˧}} {{IPA|{{ref|sa˧|*}}}}<br />{{IPA|ta˩}} {{IPA|{{ref|ta˩|**}}}} || {{IPA|tʰua˩}} || {{IPA|kiə˧}} || {{IPA|pa˨˦}} || {{IPA|ma˧}} || {{IPA|naːn˧˨}} || {{IPA|su˥}} || {{IPA|paːn˧˨}} || {{IPA|tʰu˩ paːn˧˨}} || {{IPA|piu˥}}
|-
|colspan=22|
: There are two forms for numbers '[[one]]' in [[Tsat language|Tsat (Hui Hui; Hainan Cham)]] :
: {{IPA|{{note|sa˧|*}}}} The word ''{{IPA|sa˧}}'' is used for serial counting.
: {{IPA|{{note|ta˩|**}}}} The word ''{{IPA|ta˩}}'' is used with hundreds and thousands and before qualifiers.
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]
| ibbong <br /> awan || maysa || dua || tallo || uppat || lima || innem || pito || walo || siam || sangapulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Ibanag language|Ibanag]]
| awan || tadday || duwa || tallu || appa' || lima || annam || pitu || walu || siyam || mafulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]
| || sakey || duwa || talo || apat || lima || anem || pito || walo || siyam || samplo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]
|alá||métung/ isá||adwá|| atlú || ápat || limá || ánam || pitú || walú || siám || apúlu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| walâ
| isá
| dalawá
| tatló
| apat
| limá
| anim
| pitó
| waló
| siyám
| sampû
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Bikol language|Bikol]]
| warâ
| sarô
| duwá
| tuló
| apát
| limá
| anóm
| pitó
| waló
| siyám
| sampulò
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Aklanon language|Aklanon]]
| uwa  || isaea <br /> sambilog || daywa || tatlo || ap-at || lima || an-om || pito || waeo || siyam || napueo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Karay-a language|Karay-a]]
| wara || (i)sara || darwa || tatlo || apat || lima || anəm || pito || walo || siyam || napulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Onhan language|Onhan]]
| || isya || darwa || tatlo || upat || lima || an-om || pito || walo || siyam || sampulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Romblomanon language|Romblomanon]]
| || isá || duhá || tuyó || upát || limá || onúm || pitó || wayó || siyám || napuyò
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Masbatenyo language|Masbatenyo]]
| || isád <br /> usád || duwá <br /> duhá || tuló || upát || limá || unóm || pitó || waló || siyám || napulò 
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]]
| walâ|| isá || duhá || tatló || apat || limá || anom || pitó || waló || siyám || napulò 
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]
| walâ || usá || duhá || tuló || upát || limá || unóm || pitó || waló || siyám || napulò <br /> pulò
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Waray-Waray language|Waray]]
| waráy  || usá || duhá || tuló || upát || limá || unóm || pitó || waló || siyám || napulò
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tausug language|Tausug]]
| sipar || isa || duwa || tū || upat || lima || unum || pitu || walu || siyam || hangpu'
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Maranao language|Maranao]]
| || isa || dowa || təlo || pat || lima || nəm || pito || walo || siyaw || sapolo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Lawangan language|Benuaq (Dayak Benuaq)]]
| || eray || duaq || toluu || opaat || limaq || jawatn || turu || walo || sie || sepuluh
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Lun Bawang language|Lun Bawang/ Lundayeh]]
| na luk dih || eceh || dueh || teluh || epat || limeh || enem || tudu' || waluh || liwa' || pulu'
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Dusun language|Dusun]]
| aiso || iso || duo || tolu || apat || limo || onom || turu || walu || siam || hopod
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
| aotra || isa <br /> iray || roa || telo || efatra || dimy || enina || fito || valo || sivy || folo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Sangir language|Sangirese (Sangir-Minahasan)]]
| || sembau || darua || tatelu || epa || lima || eneng || pitu || walu || sio || mapulo
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Biak language|Biak]]
| bei || oser || suru || kyor || fyak || rim || wonem || fik || war || siw || samfur
|- style="text-align: center;"
! style="font-size: small;" | ''[[Oceanic languages]]''{{ref|d|d}}
! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]]
| || eet || érúúw || één || fáán || niim || woon || fúús || waan || ttiw || engoon
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Fijian language|Fijian]]
| saiva || dua || rua || tolu || vaa || lima || ono || vitu || walu || ciwa || tini
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]]
| akea || teuana || uoua || tenua || aua || nimaua || onoua || itua || wanua || ruaiwa || tebwina
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
| 'ole || 'e-kahi || 'e-lua || 'e-kolu || 'e-hā || 'e-lima || 'e-ono || 'e-hiku || 'e-walu || 'e-iwa || 'umi
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Māori language|Māori]]
| kore || tahi || rua || toru || whā || rima || ono || whitu || waru || iwa || tekau <br>ngahuru
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Marshallese language|Marshallese]]<ref>Cook, Richard (1992). ''[http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rscook/pdf/PCMLT-JejeinM.pdf Peace Corps Marshall Islands: Marshallese Language Training Manual]'' ([[PDF]]), pg. 22. Accessed August 27, 2007.</ref>
| o̧o || juon || ruo || jilu || emān || ļalem || jiljino || jimjuon || ralitōk || ratimjuon || jon̄oul
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Motu language|Motu]]{{ref|e|e}}<ref>Percy Chatterton, (1975). [http://www.exkiap.net/other/tok_pisin/Say_It_In_Motu.pdf Say It In Motu: An instant introduction to the common language of Papua]. Pacific Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-85807-025-7}}</ref>
| || ta || rua || toi || hani || ima || tauratoi || hitu  || taurahani  || taurahani-ta || gwauta
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Niuean language|Niuean]]
| nakai || taha || ua || tolu || fā || lima || ono || fitu || valu || hiva || hogofulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Rapanui language|Rapanui]]
| || tahi || rua || toru || hā || rima || ono || hitu || va'u || iva || angahuru
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Rarotongan Māori language|Rarotongan Māori]]
| kare || ta'i || rua || toru || 'ā || rima || ono || 'itu || varu || iva || nga'uru
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]]
| || ta || rua || folu || hake || lima || ono || hifu || vạlu || siva || saghulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Samoan language|Samoan]]
| o || tasi || lua || tolu || fa || lima || ono || fitu || valu || iva || sefulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Samoan language|Samoan]]<br />(K-type)
| o || kasi || lua || kolu || fa || lima || ogo || fiku || valu || iva || sefulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]
| || hō'ē <br /> tahi || piti || toru || maha || pae || ōno || hitu || va'u || iva || hō'ē 'ahuru
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tongan language|Tongan]]
| noa || taha || ua || tolu || fa || nima || ono || fitu || valu || hiva || hongofulu <br /> taha noa
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
| || tahi <br> tasi || lua || tolu || fa || lima || ono || fitu || valu || iva || sefulu
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Yapese language|Yapese]]
| dæriiy <br> dæriiq || t’aareeb || l’ugruw || dalip || anngeeg || laal || neel’ || medlip || meeruuk || meereeb || ragaag
|}

{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap" | Comparison chart-thirteen words
|-
!style="background:#efefef;"|English
!style="background:#efefef;"|one
!style="background:#efefef;"|two
!style="background:#efefef;"|three
!style="background:#efefef;"|four
!style="background:#efefef;"|person
!style="background:#efefef;"|house
!style="background:#efefef;"|dog
!style="background:#efefef;"|road
!style="background:#efefef;"|day
!style="background:#efefef;"|new
!style="background:#efefef;"|we
!style="background:#efefef;"|what
!style="background:#efefef;"|fire
|-
![[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]]
|*əsa, *isa
|*duSa
|*təlu
|*əpat
|*Cau
|*balay, *Rumaq
|*asu
|*zalan
|*qaləjaw, *waRi
|*baqəRu
|*kita, *kami
|*anu, *apa
|*Sapuy
|-
![[Tetum language|Tetum]]
|ida
|rua
|tolu
|haat
|ema
|uma
|asu
|dalan
|loron
|foun
|ita
|saida
|ahi
|-
![[Amis language|Amis]]
|cecay
|tosa
|tolo
|sepat
|tamdaw
|luma
|wacu
|lalan
|cidal
|faroh
|kita
|uman
|namal
|-
![[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]
|sa
|dua
|telu
|pat
|taw
|rumah
|soan
|dalan
|wari
|vekar
|mi
|amanai
|apue,<br>asi
|-
![[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
|isa
|dalawa
|tatlo
|apat
|tao
|bahay
|aso
|daan
|araw
|bago
|tayo / kami
|ano
|apoy
|-
![[Central Bikol language|Bikol]]
|sarô
|duwá
|tuló
|apát
|táwo
|haróng
|áyam
|dalan
|aldáw
|bàgo
|kitá/kami
|anó
|kaláyo
|-
![[Rinconada Bikol language|Rinconada Bikol]]
|əsad
|darwā
|tolō
|əpat
|tawō
|baləy
|ayam
|raran
|aldəw
|bāgo
|kitā
|onō
|kalayō
|-
![[Waray language|Waray]]
|usa
|duha
|tulo
|upat
|tawo
|balay
|ayam,<br>ido
|dalan
|adlaw
|bag-o
|kita
|anu
|kalayo
|-
![[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]
|usa,<br>isa
|duha
|tulo
|upat
|tawo
|balay
|iro
|dalan
|adlaw
|bag-o
|kita
|unsa
|kalayo
|-
![[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]]
|isa
|duha
|tatlo
|apat
|tawo
|balay
|ido
|dalan
|adlaw
|bag-o
|kita
|ano
|kalayo
|-
![[Aklanon language|Aklanon]]
|isaea,<br>sambilog
|daywa
|tatlo
|ap-at
|tawo
|baeay
|ayam
|daean
|adlaw
|bag-o
|kita
|ano
|kaeayo
|-
![[Kinaray-a language|Kinaray-a]]
|(i)sara
|darwa
|tatlo
|apat
|tawo
|balay
|ayam
|dalan
|adlaw
|bag-o
|kita
|ano
|kalayo
|-
![[Tausug language|Tausug]]
|hambuuk
|duwa
|tu
|upat
|tau
|bay
|iru'
|dan
|adlaw
|ba-gu
|kitaniyu
|unu
|kayu
|-
![[Maranao language|Maranao]]
|isa
|dowa
|təlo
|pat
|taw
|walay
|aso
|lalan
|gawi’i
|bago
|səkita/səkami
|antona’a
|apoy
|-
![[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]
|métung
|adwá
|atlú
|ápat
|táu
|balé
|ásu
|dálan
|aldó
|báyu
|íkatamu
|nánu
|apî
|-
![[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]
|sakey
|dua,<br>duara
|talo,<br>talora
|apat,<br>apatira
|too
|abong
|aso
|dalan
|ageo
|balo
|sikatayo
|anto
|pool
|-
![[Ilokano language|Ilokano]]
|maysa
|dua
|tallo
|uppat
|tao
|balay
|aso
|kalsada
|aldaw
|baro
|dakami
|ania
|apuy
|-
![[Ivatan language|Ivatan]]
|asa
|dadowa
|tatdo
|apat
|tao
|vahay
|chito
|rarahan
|araw
|va-yo
|yaten
|ango
|apoy
|-
![[Ibanag language|Ibanag]]
|tadday
|dua
|tallu
|appa'
|tolay
|balay
|kitu
|dalan
|aggaw
|bagu
|sittam
|anni
|afi
|-
![[Yogad language|Yogad]]
|tata
|addu
|tallu
|appat
|tolay
|binalay
|atu
|daddaman
|agaw
|bagu
|sikitam
|gani
|afuy
|-
![[Gaddang language|Gaddang]]
|antet
|addwa
|tallo
|appat
|tolay
|balay
|atu
|dallan
|aw
|bawu
|ikkanetam
|sanenay
|afuy
|-
![[Tboli language|Tboli]]
|sotu
|lewu
|tlu
|fat
|tau
|gunu
|ohu
|lan
|kdaw
|lomi
|tekuy
|tedu
|ofih
|-
![[Lun Bawang language|Lun Bawang/ Lundayeh]]
|eceh
|dueh
|teluh
|epat
|lemulun/lun
|ruma'
|uko'
|dalan
|eco
|beruh
|teu
|enun
|apui
|-
![[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]/[[Malay language|Malay]]
|sa/se,<br>satu,<br>suatu
|dua
|tiga
|empat
|orang
|rumah,<br>balai
|anjing
|jalan
|hari
|baru
|kita, kami
|apa,<br>anu
|api
|-
![[Old Javanese language|Old Javanese]]
|esa,<br>eka
|rwa,<br>dwi
|tĕlu,<br>tri
|pat,<br>catur<ref>s.v. kawan, ''Old Javanese-English Dictionary'', P.J. Zoetmulder and Stuart Robson, 1982</ref>
|wwang
|umah
|asu
|dalan
|dina
|hañar, añar<ref>s.v. hañar, ''Old Javanese-English Dictionary'', P.J. Zoetmulder and Stuart Robson, 1982</ref>
|kami<ref>s.v. kami, this could mean both first person singular and plural, ''Old Javanese-English Dictionary'', P.J. Zoetmulder and Stuart Robson, 1982</ref>
|apa,<br>aparan
|apuy,<br>agni
|-
![[Javanese language|Javanese]]
|siji,<br>setunggal
|loro,<br>kalih
|tĕlu,<br>tiga<ref name="ReferenceA">''Javanese English Dictionary'', Stuart Robson and Singgih Wibisono, 2002</ref>
|papat,<br>sekawan
|uwong,<br>tiyang,<br>priyantun<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|omah,<br>griya,<br>dalem<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|asu,<br>sĕgawon
|dalan,<br>gili<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|dina,<br>dinten<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|anyar,<br>énggal<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|awaké dhéwé,<br>kula panjenengan<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|apa,<br>punapa<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|gĕni,<br>latu,<br>brama<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|-
![[Old Sundanese language|Old Sundanese]]
|hiji, ésé
|dua
|teulu
|opat
|urang
|imah, bumi
|anjing, basu
|jalan
|poé
|bahayu
|urang
|naha, nahaeun
|apuy
|-
![[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
|hiji, saésé
|dua
|tilu, talu, tolu
|opat
|urang, jalma, jalmi, manusa
|imah, 
rorompok, 
bumi
|anjing
|jalan
|poé
|anyar,<br>énggal
|urang, arurang
|naon, nahaon
|seuneu, api
|-
![[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
|sa
|duwa
|lhèë
|peuët
|ureuëng
|rumoh,<br>balè,<br>seuëng
|asèë
|röt
|uroë
|barô
|(geu)tanyoë
|peuë
|apui
|-
![[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]
|ciek
|duo
|tigo
|ampek
|urang
|rumah
|anjiang
|labuah,<br>jalan
|hari
|baru
|awak
|apo
|api
|-
![[Rejang language|Rejang]]
|do
|duai
|tlau
|pat
|tun
|umêak
|kuyuk
|dalên
|bilai
|blau
|itê
|jano, <br>gen, <br> inê
|opoi
|-
![[Lampung language|Lampungese]]
|sai
|khua
|telu
|pak
|jelema
|lamban
|kaci
|ranlaya
|khani
|baru
|kham
|api
|apui
|-
![[Komering language|Komering]]
|osay
|ruwa
|tolu
|pak
|jolma
|lombahan
|asu
|ranggaya
|harani
|anyar<br>ompay 
|ram<br>sikam<br>kita
|apiya
|apuy
|-
![[Buginese language|Buginese]]
|se'di
|dua
|tellu
|eppa'
|tau
|bola
|asu
|laleng
|esso
|baru
|idi'
|aga
|api
|-
![[Temuan language|Temuan]]
|satuk
|duak
|tigak
|empat
|uwang,<br>eang
|gumah,<br>umah
|anying,<br>koyok
|jalan
|aik,<br>haik
|bahauk
|kitak
|apak
|apik
|-
! [[Toba Batak language|Toba Batak]]
|sada
|dua
|tolu
|opat
|halak
|jabu
|biang, asu
|dalan
|ari
|baru
|hita
|aha
|api
|-
![[Kelantan-Pattani Malay|Kelantan-Pattani]]
|so
|duwo
|tigo
|pak
|oghe
|ghumoh,<br />dumoh
|anjing
|jale
|aghi
|baghu
|kito
|gapo
|api
|-
![[Biak language|Biak]]
|oser
|suru
|kyor
|fyak
|snon
|rum
|naf,<br>rofan
|nyan
|ras
|babo
|nu,<br>nggo
|sa,<br>masa
|for
|-
![[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
|håcha,<br>maisa
|hugua
|tulu
|fatfat
|taotao/tautau
|guma'
|ga'lågu<ref>From [[Spanish language|Spanish]] "[[:es:Galgo|galgo]]"</ref>
|chålan
|ha'åni
|på'go, nuebu<ref>From Spanish "[[:es:Nuevo|nuevo]]"</ref>
|hami, hita
|håfa
|guåfi
|-
![[Motu language|Motu]]
|ta,<br>tamona
|rua
|toi
|hani
|tau
|ruma
|sisia
|dala
|dina
|matamata
|ita,<br>ai
|dahaka
|lahi
|-
![[Māori language|Māori]]
|tahi
|rua
|toru
|whā
|tangata
|whare
|kurī
|ara
|rā
|hou
|tāua, tātou/tātau<br>māua, mātou/mātau
|aha
|ahi
|-
![[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]]
|teuana
|uoua
|tenua
|aua
|aomata
|uma,<br />bata,<br />auti (from ''house'')
|kamea,<br />kiri
|kawai
|bong
|bou
|ti
|tera,<br />-ra (suffix)
|ai
|-
![[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
|tasi
|lua
|tolu
|fá
|toko
|fale
|kuli
|ala,<br />tuu
|aso
|fou
|tāua
|a
|afi
|-
![[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
|kahi
|lua
|kolu
|hā
|kanaka
|hale
|'īlio
|ala
|ao
|hou
|kākou
|aha
|ahi
|-
![[Banjar language|Banjarese]]
|asa
|duwa
|talu
|ampat
|urang
|rūmah
|hadupan
|heko
|hǎri
|hanyar
|kami
|apa
|api
|-
![[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
|isa
|roa
|telo
|efatra
|olona
|trano
|alika
|lalana
|andro
|vaovao
|isika
|inona
|afo
|-
![[Central Dusun language|Dusun]]
|iso
|duo
|tolu
|apat
|tulun
|walai,<br>lamin
|tasu
|ralan
|tadau
|wagu
|tokou
|onu/nu
|tapui
|-
![[Coastal Kadazan language|Kadazan]]
|iso
|duvo
|tohu
|apat
|tuhun
|hamin
|tasu
|lahan
|tadau
|vagu
|tokou
|onu,<br>nunu
|tapui
|-
![[Rungus language|Rungus]]
|iso
|duvo
|tolu,<br>tolzu
|apat
|tulun,<br>tulzun
|valai,<br>valzai
|tasu
|dalan
|tadau
|vagu
|tokou
|nunu
|tapui,<br>apui
|-
![[Tambanuo language|Sungai/Tambanuo]]
|ido
|duo
|tolu
|opat
|lobuw
|waloi
|asu
|ralan
|runat
|wagu
|toko
|onu
|apui
|-
![[Iban language|Iban]]
|satu, sa,<br>siti, sigi
|dua
|tiga
|empat
|orang,<br>urang
|rumah
|ukui,<br>uduk
|jalai
|hari
|baru
|kitai
|nama
|api
|-
![[Sarawak Malay]]
|satu,<br>sigek
|dua
|tiga
|empat
|orang
|rumah
|asuk
|jalan
|ari
|baru
|kita
|apa
|api
|-
![[Terengganu Malay|Terengganuan]]
|se
|duwe
|tige
|pak
|oghang
|ghumoh,<br>dumoh
|anjing
|jalang
|aghi
|baghu
|kite
|mende, ape,<br>gape, nape
|api
|-
![[Kanayatn Language|Kanayatn]]
|sa
|dua
|talu
|ampat
|urakng
|rumah
|asu'
|jalatn
|ari
|baru
|kami',<br />diri'
|ahe
|api
|-
![[Yapese language|Yapese]]
|t’aareeb
|l’ugruw
|dalip
|anngeeg
|beaq
|noqun
|kuus
|kanaawooq
|raan
|beqeech
|gamow
|maang
|nifiiy
|}</div>

==See also==
{{Portal|Language|Indonesia|Taiwan}}
* [[Languages of Indonesia]]
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Austronesian Formal Linguistics Association]]
* [[List of Austronesian languages]]
* [[List of Austronesian regions]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{cite journal|surname=Sagart|given=Laurent|title=The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai–Kadai|year=2004|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=43|issue=2|pages=411–440|doi=10.1353/ol.2005.0012|s2cid=49547647|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00090906/document}}
* {{cite book|surname=Sagart|given=Laurent|contribution=Sino-Tibeto-Austronesian: An updated and improved argument|year=2005|editor1-surname=Blench|editor1-given=Roger|editor1-link=Roger Blench|editor2-surname=Sanchez-Mazas|editor2-given=Alicia|title=The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics|pages=161–176|publisher=Routledge Curzon|place=London|isbn=978-0-415-32242-3}}
* {{cite book|surname=Sapir|given=Edward|author-link=Edward Sapir|contribution=Time perspective in aboriginal American culture: a study in method|year=1968|title=Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality|pages=389–467|editor-surname=Mandelbaum|editor-given=D.G.|place=Berkeley|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|orig-year=1949|isbn=0-520-01115-5}}
* {{cite journal|url=https://www.reed.edu/formosa/texts/Taylor1888.html|title=A ramble through southern Formosa|surname=Taylor|given=G.|year=1888|journal=The China Review|volume=16|pages=137–161|access-date=2019-04-18|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411020008/https://www.reed.edu/formosa/texts/Taylor1888.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|title=From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects. Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications No. 28|surname=Thurgood|given=Graham|author-link=Graham Thurgood|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|place=[[Honolulu]]|year=1999|isbn=0-8248-2131-9}}
* {{cite journal|title=Traces of archaic mitochondrial lineages persist in Austronesian-speaking Formosan populations|year=2005|journal=PLOS Biol|volume=3|page=e247|surname1=Trejaut|given1=J. A.|surname2=Kivisild|given2=T.|surname3=Loo|given3=J. H.|surname4=Lee|given4=C. L.|surname5=He|given5=C. L.|issue=8|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247|pmid=15984912|pmc=1166350|ref={{harvid|Trejaut et al.|2005}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |first1=Lan-Hai |last1=Wei |first2=Shi |last2=Yan |first3=Yik-Ying |last3=Teo |first4=Yun-Zhi|display-authors=etal|last4=Huang |title=Phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup O3a2b2-N6 reveals patrilineal traces of Austronesian populations on the eastern coastal regions of Asia |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12 |issue=4  |pages= 1–12|year=2017|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0175080 |pmid=28380021 |pmc=5381892 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1275080W |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Winter |first=Bodo |year=2010 |title=A Note on the Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=282–287 |jstor=40783595  |doi=10.1353/ol.0.0067|s2cid=143458895 }}
* {{cite book|editor1-surname=Wouk |editor1-given=Fay |editor2-surname=Ross |editor2-given=Malcolm |editor2-link=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |year=2002 |title=The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems |series=Pacific Linguistics |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Bengtson, John D., [http://jdbengt.net/articles/Austric.pdf The "Greater Austric" Hypothesis], Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory.
* {{cite journal|surname=Blundell|given=David|title=Austronesian Dispersal|journal=Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology|volume=35|pages=1–26}}
* Blust, R. A. (1983). ''Lexical reconstruction and semantic reconstruction: the case of the Austronesian "house" words''. Hawaii: R. Blust.
* Cohen, E. M. K. (1999). ''Fundaments of Austronesian roots and etymology''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. {{ISBN|0-85883-436-7}}
* Marion, P., ''Liste Swadesh élargie de onze langues austronésiennes,'' éd. Carré de sucre, 2009
* Pawley, A., & Ross, M. (1994). ''Austronesian terminologies: continuity and change''. Canberra, Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. {{ISBN|0-85883-424-3}}
* Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench, and Alicia Sanchez-Nazas (Eds.)  (2004). ''The peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics''. London: RoutledgeCurzon. {{ISBN|0-415-32242-1}}.
* {{cite journal|surname=Terrell|given=John Edward|title=Introduction: 'Austronesia' and the great Austronesian migration|journal=[[World Archaeology]]|date=December 2004|volume=36|pages=586–590|issue=4|doi=10.1080/0043824042000303764|s2cid=162244203}}
* Tryon, D. T., & Tsuchida, S. (1995). ''Comparative Austronesian dictionary: an introduction to Austronesian studies''. Trends in linguistics, 10. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3110127296}}
* Wittmann, Henri (1972). "Le caractère génétiquement composite des changements phonétiques du malgache." ''[http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1972a-malgache.pdf Proceedings of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences]'' 7.807–810. La Haye: Mouton.
* Wolff, John U., "Comparative Austronesian Dictionary. An Introduction to Austronesian Studies", ''Language'', vol. 73, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;145–156, Mar 1997, {{ISSN|0097-8507}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{refbegin}}
* [https://acd.clld.org/ Blust's Austronesian Comparative Dictionary]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Austronesian_languages Swadesh lists of Austronesian basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
* {{cite web|url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/|title=Homepage of linguist Dr. Lawrence Reid|access-date=July 28, 2005}}
* [http://www.sil.org/pacific/png Summer Institute of Linguistics site showing languages (Austronesian and Papuan) of Papua New Guinea.]
* {{cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rustyb/112/austronesian.htm|title=Austronesian Language Resources|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041122214717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rustyb/112/austronesian.htm|archive-date=November 22, 2004|url-status=dead}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601190346/http://coconutstudio.com/Austro%20Nos%20Mar2008%2011-3.xls Spreadsheet of 1600+ Austronesian and Papuan number names and systems – ongoing study to determine their relationships and distribution]
* [http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/june/austronesianLanguageFamily.html Languages of the World: The Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) Language Family] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117213110/http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/june/austronesianLanguageFamily.html |date=2009-01-17 }}
* {{YouTube|mYSr2k4buqU|Introduction to Austronesian Languages and Culture (video) (Malayo-Polynesian) Language Family}}
* [http://www.pro-classic.com/ethnicgv/maps/map_index.htm 南島語族分布圖] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630020425/http://www.pro-classic.com/ethnicgv/maps/map_index.htm |date=2014-06-30 }}
{{refend}}

{{Austronesian languages}}
{{Language families}}
{{Eurasian languages}}
{{Language verbs}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Austronesian Languages}}
[[Category:Austronesian languages| ]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Languages of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Languages of Oceania]]
[[Category:Sino-Austronesian languages]]