Editing Avro Manchester

{{Short description|British twin-engine heavy bomber}}
{{About|the Second World War bomber|the First World War biplane|Avro 533 Manchester}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox aircraft
 |name = Manchester
 |image = File:Avro Manchester ExCC.jpg
 |image_border = yes
 |caption = Avro Manchester Mk.1A 'L7486' (with extended tail fins)
 |type = Heavy bomber
 |national_origin = United Kingdom
 |manufacturer = [[Avro]]
 |designer =
 |first_flight = 25 July 1939
 |introduction = November 1940
 |retired = 1942
 |status =
 |primary_user = [[Royal Air Force]]
 |more_users = [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]
 |produced = 1940–1941
 |number_built = 209
 |unit cost =
 |variants =
 |developed_into = [[Avro Lancaster]]
}}

The '''Avro 679 Manchester''' was a British twin-engine [[heavy bomber]] developed and manufactured by the [[Avro]] aircraft company in the United Kingdom. While not being built in great numbers, it was the forerunner of the more famed and more successful four-engined [[Avro Lancaster]], which was one of the most capable [[strategic bomber]]s of the [[Second World War]].

Avro designed the Manchester in conformance with the requirements laid out by the British [[Air Ministry]] [[List of Air Ministry Specifications|Specification P.13/36]], which sought a capable [[medium bomber]] with which to equip the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) and to replace its twin-engine bombers, such as the [[Armstrong Whitworth Whitley]], [[Handley Page Hampden]] and [[Vickers Wellington]]. Performing its [[maiden flight]] on 25 July 1939, the Manchester entered squadron service in November 1940, just over twelve months after the outbreak of the war.

Operated by the RAF and the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (RCAF), the Manchester came to be regarded as a failure, primarily as a result of its [[Rolls-Royce Vulture]] engines, which were underdeveloped and hence underpowered and unreliable, and production was terminated in 1941. The Manchester was redesigned as a four-engined heavy bomber, powered by the [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] engine instead, which became known as the Lancaster.

==Development==
The Manchester has its origins in a design produced by Avro to fulfil the British [[Air Ministry]]'s [[List of Air Ministry Specifications|Specification P.13/36]]. This was the same specification to which [[Handley Page]] had also produced their initial design for what would become the [[Handley Page Halifax|Halifax]] bomber.<ref>Lake 2002, pp. 89–90.</ref> Issued in May 1936, Specification P.13/36 called for a twin-engine monoplane "[[medium bomber]]" for "worldwide use", which was to be capable of carrying out shallow (30°) [[dive bombing]] attacks and carry heavy bomb loads ({{cvt|8000|lb}}) or two {{cvt|18|in}} [[torpedo]]es.<ref name ="Lewis bomber">Lewis 1974, p. 299.</ref><ref name = "Bowyer 25">Bowyer 1974, p. 25.</ref> Provisions to conduct catapult assisted takeoffs, which would permit the carriage of the maximum payload, was another requirement, although this provision was removed in July 1938.<ref name = "Bowyer 29">Bowyer 1974, p. 29.</ref> The envisioned cruising speed of the bomber was to be a minimum of {{cvt|275|mph}} at {{cvt|15000|ft}}.<ref name="Mason bomber p323">Mason 1994, p. 323.</ref> The Air Ministry had expectations for an aircraft of similar weight to the [[Vickers Warwick|B.1/35]] specification but smaller and faster.

Avro had already started work on a corresponding design prior to having received a formal invitation to tender. The company was in competition with [[Boulton Paul Aircraft|Boulton Paul]], [[Bristol Aeroplane Company|Bristol]], [[Fairey Aviation Company|Fairey]], Handley Page and [[Short Brothers|Shorts]]. Vickers also had its Warwick, which had [[Napier Sabre]] engines but eventually chose against tendering it. In early 1937, the Avro design and the rival Handley Page HP.56 were accepted and prototypes of both ordered but in mid-1937, the Air Ministry exercised their right to order the types "off the drawing board". This skipping of the usual process was necessary due to the initiation of a wider expansion of the RAF in expectation of another great European war. From 1939, it was expected that the P.13/36 would begin replacing the RAF's medium bombers, such as the [[Armstrong Whitworth Whitley]], [[Handley Page Hampden]] and [[Vickers Wellington]].

The Avro design used the [[Rolls-Royce Vulture]] 24-cylinder [[X engine|X-block engine]], which was two [[Rolls-Royce Peregrine]] [[V engine|Vee]] [[cylinder block]]s mounted one on top of the other, the bottom one inverted to give the "X" shape.<ref name = "Bowyer 26">Bowyer 1974, p. 26.</ref> When developed in 1935, the Vulture engine had promise — it was rated at {{cvt|1760|hp}} but it proved woefully unreliable and had to be derated to {{cvt|1480|–|1500|hp}}. Avro's prototype Manchester ''L7246'', was assembled by their experimental department at Manchester's [[Manchester Airport|Ringway Airport]] and first flew on 25 July 1939, with the second aircraft following on 26 May 1940.<ref name="Lewis bomber"/><ref>Bowyer 1974, pp. 28–29.</ref> The Vulture engine was chosen by Avro and not stipulated by the Air Ministry as is sometimes claimed; other engine layouts considered were the use of two [[Bristol Hercules]] or [[Bristol Centaurus]] [[radial engine]]s.<ref name = "Bowyer 26"/>{{efn|The historian Francis Mason claimed that the engine selection was a part of the specification as does aviation author Chaz Bowyer.<ref name="Mason bomber p323"/><ref>Bowyer 1974, pp. 25–26.</ref> Buttler states the Ministry specified prototypes with Hercules and Vulture engines and Sinnott rebuts the assertion.<ref>Buttler, 2004 p102-103</ref><ref>Sinnott 2001, pp. 165–171.</ref>}} The Handley Page HP.56, always intended as the back-up to the Avro, was redesigned to take four engines on the orders of the Air Ministry in 1937, when the Vulture was already showing problems.<ref>Lake 2002, p. 90.</ref>{{efn|Handley Page's aborted HP.56 proposal would become the four engine HP.57 that entered service as the Handley Page Halifax, a significantly more successful aircraft than the Manchester.}}

[[File:Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1939-1945- Avro 679 Manchester. CH17300.jpg|thumb|Avro Manchester Mk I (note additional central tail fin)]]

While the Manchester was designed with a [[twin tail]], the first production aircraft, the '''Mk I''', had a central fin added and twenty aircraft like this were built. They were succeeded by the '''Mk IA''' which reverted to the twin-fin system with enlarged and taller fins and [[rudder]]s mounted on a new [[tailplane]], with span increased from {{cvt|22|ft}} to {{cvt|33|ft}}. This configuration was carried over to the Lancaster, except for the first prototype, which also used a central fin and was a converted, unfinished Manchester.<ref name = "lake 89">Lake 2002, p. 89.</ref> Avro constructed 177 Manchesters while [[Metropolitan-Vickers]] completed 32 aircraft. Plans for [[Armstrong Whitworth]] and [[Fairey Aviation]] at  Ringway (now [[Manchester Airport]]) to build the Manchester were abandoned. Fairey's order for 150 Manchesters was replaced by orders for the Halifax.

==Design==
[[File:Avro Manchester Mk I of No. 207 Squadron RAF at Waddington, Lincolnshire, 12 September 1941. CH3879.jpg|thumb|The forward section of a Manchester Mark I at Waddington, Lincolnshire, showing the nose with the bomb-aimer's window, the forward gun-turret and the cockpit, September 1941]]
The Avro Manchester was designed with great consideration for ease of manufacture and repair.<ref name="auto">Flight 1942, p. 555.</ref> The fuselage of the aircraft comprised longitudinal stringers or [[longeron]]s throughout, over which an external skin of aluminium alloy was flush-riveted for a smooth external surface.<ref name="auto" /> The wings were of a two-spar construction, the internal ribs being made of aluminium alloys; fuel was contained with several self-sealing fuel tanks within the wings.<ref>Flight 1942, pp. 555–556.</ref> The tail shared a similar construction to the wing, featuring a twin fin-and-rudder configuration that provided good vision for the dorsal gunner.<ref name = "flight 556">Flight 1942, p. 556.</ref>

The cockpit housed the pilot and fighting controller's position underneath the canopy, and these two crew members were provided with all-round vision. The navigator was seated aft of the fighting controller and the position included an [[Astrodome (aviation)|astrodome]] for use of a [[sextant]].<ref name = "flight 556"/> The bomb aimer's station was housed inside the aircraft's nose, beneath the forward turret and bomb aiming was conducted using optical sights housed in this compartment.<ref name = "flight 557">Flight 1942, p. 557.</ref> For crew comfort on lengthy missions, a rest area was situated just to the rear of the main cabin.<ref name = "Bowyer 28">Bowyer 1974, p. 28.</ref>

The aircraft's undercarriage was entirely retractable via hydraulic systems, or in an emergency, a backup air system.<ref name="auto" /> The doors to the [[bomb bay]] were also operated by these systems, an additional safety measure was installed to ensure that the bombs could not be dropped if the doors were shut.<ref name = "flight 557"/> The bombs were housed on bomb racks inside the internal bomb bay, and other armaments such as torpedoes could also be fitted.<ref name = "flight 557"/> All fuel tankage was located in the wings in order to keep the fuselage free to accommodate more armaments in the bomb bay which covered nearly two-thirds of the underside of the fuselage.<ref name = "Bowyer 26"/>

Vulnerable parts of the aircraft were armoured; the pilot had additional armour and bulletproof glass and an armoured bulkhead was to the rear of the navigator's position.<ref name = "flight 556"/> The Manchester featured three hydraulically-operated turrets, located in the nose, rear and mid-upper fuselage;<ref name = "lake 89"/> the addition of a [[ventral]] turret directly behind the bomb bay had been considered and tested on the second prototype, but did not feature on production aircraft.{{efn|German pilots soon learnt of the lack of any defence in the ventral area on both the Manchester and its successor the Lancaster, and would often attack the aircraft in a manner to exploit this vulnerability.<ref name = "Bowyer 26"/>}}<ref name = "Bowyer 26"/> Access to all crew stations was provided by a walkway and crew positions had nearby escape hatches.<ref>''Flight'' 1942, pp. 556–557.</ref>

The Manchester was powered by a pair of Vulture engines; in service these proved to be extremely unreliable. Aviation author Jon Lake stated of the Vulture: "The engine made the Manchester mainly notable for its unreliability, poor performance, and general inadequacy to the task at hand" and attributed the aircraft's poor service record to the engine troubles.<ref name = "lake 89"/>

<blockquote>I was one of the six original pilots to have flown with the first Manchester squadron. That was a disaster. The aircraft itself, the airframe, had many shortcomings in equipment in the beginning, but as we found out Avro were excellent in doing modifications and re-equipping the aeroplane. The engines never were and never did become reliable. They did not give enough power for the aeroplane, so we ended up with two extremely unreliable 1,750 hp engines having to haul a 50,000-pound aircraft. We should really have had 2,500 hp engines. You felt that if you'd lost one, that was it, you weren't coming home. It didn't matter if you feathered the propeller or not. There was only one way you went and that was down. I have seen an aircraft doing a run up on the ground and have two pistons come right out through the side of the engine. The original bearings were made without any silver as an economy measure, so they weren't hard enough. The bearings would collapse the connecting rod and the piston would fling out through the side of the engine and bang! Your engine just destroyed itself.<ref>[http://www.rafbombercommand.com/personals_1_earlydays.html#stories_earlydays.html "Before the Lancs"], Early Days, Personal Stories, The Bomber Command Association</ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2023|fix-attempted=yes}}</blockquote>

==Operational history==
[[File:Avro Manchester.jpg|thumb|right|Avro Manchester Mk IA]]
On 5 August 1940, the first production Avro Manchester, ''L7276'', was delivered to [[MOD Boscombe Down|RAF Boscombe Down]] in advance of service acceptance trials.<ref name = "Bowyer 29"/> In November 1940, the Manchester officially entered service with the newly reformed [[No. 207 Squadron RAF|No. 207 Squadron]] of [[RAF Bomber Command]]. The type passed all acceptance tests by 21 December 1940, and 207 Squadron had at least eight Manchesters on strength by the end of 1940.<ref>Bowyer 1974, pp. 29–31.</ref> The Manchester's first operational mission was conducted on 24–25 February 1941 in a raid on the [[France|French]] port of [[Brest, France|Brest]].<ref>Jackson 1990, p. 355.</ref><ref name="thetford raf">Thetford 1957</ref> On 13 March 1941, ''L7319'' became the first Manchester to be shot down by enemy fire.<ref name = "Bowyer 31">Bowyer 1974, p. 31.</ref>

On 13 April 1941, all Manchesters were temporarily grounded due to a higher than expected number of engine [[Bearing (mechanical)|bearing]] failures; on 16 June 1941, a second grounding of the type was ordered due to more engine troubles.<ref name = "Bowyer 32">Bowyer 1974, p. 32.</ref> The unserviceability of the Vulture engine forced squadrons to make use of obsolete bombers such as the Hampden in its place. Upon the restart of operations in August 1941, additional failings were encountered; excessive tail flutter, hydraulic failures and faulty [[Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering|propeller feathering controls]].<ref name = "Bowyer 33">Bowyer 1974, p. 33.</ref> Production of the Manchester was halted in November 1941, by which point a total of 202 aircraft had been constructed. A total of eight bomber squadrons were equipped with the type, it also served in two further squadrons and  also saw use by [[RAF Coastal Command]].<ref name="thetford raf"/>

[[File:Inside 207 Squadron Avro Manchester WWII IWM CH 3884.jpg|thumb|left|Interior view of a Manchester MK I]]
While modifications were made by Avro to address some of the technical issues experienced, unit strength suffered and Bomber Command was frequently unable to raise significant numbers of aircraft to participate in large bombing missions; on 7 November 1941, all of the RAFs serviceable bombers had been dispatched to bomb [[Berlin]], out of a force of over 400 bombers, only 15 were Manchesters.<ref name = "Bowyer 34">Bowyer 1974, p. 34.</ref> On 3 March 1942, out of a force of nearly 200 bombers sent against a [[Renault]] factory near [[Paris]], 25 were Manchesters;<ref name = "Bowyer 35">Bowyer 1974, p. 35.</ref> while during the [[Bombing of Cologne in World War II#First 1,000 bomber raid|first 1,000 bomber raid]] on [[Cologne]] on 30 May 1942, 35 Manchesters were amongst the 1,047 bombers sent to attack the city.<ref name = "Bowyer 38">Bowyer 1974, p. 38.</ref> Flying Officer [[Leslie Thomas Manser|Leslie Manser]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his actions while piloting Manchester ''L7301'' of [[No. 50 Squadron RAF|50 Squadron]] during the Cologne bombing mission.<ref>Bowyer 1974, pp. 38, 41.</ref>

The '''Mk III''' Manchester ([[United Kingdom military aircraft serials|serial number]] ''BT308'') which first flew on 9 January 1941, was essentially the first Lancaster, featuring a longer wing fitted with four Rolls-Royce Merlins in new unitized, [[power-egg]] nacelles – originally developed by Rolls-Royce for the Merlin-powered [[Bristol Beaufighter|Beaufighter II]] – although initially retaining the three fins and twin outboard rudders (the central fin had no movable control surface) of the Manchester I. ''BT308'' received the "Lancaster" name immediately after its first flight. The second prototype Lancaster ''DG595'' featured the twin, enlarged fins and rudders of the Manchester IA. Manchester production continued until November of that year but some aircraft that were still in production were instead completed as Lancasters.

The 193 operational Manchesters flew 1,269 sorties with Bomber Command, dropping 1,826&nbsp;tons (1,657&nbsp;tonnes) of bombs and lost 78 aircraft in action, flying its last operation against [[Bremen]] on 25 June 1942.<ref name="jackson avro">Jackson 1990, p. 356.</ref><ref name = "Bowyer 43">Bowyer 1974, p. 43.</ref> A further 45 were non-operational losses of which 30 involved engine failure. The Manchester was withdrawn from operations in mid-1942 in favour of more capable aircraft. Its final role in RAF service was as instructional trainers for converting crews to the RAF's new Lancaster bombers; the Manchester and Lancaster shared nearly identical crew positions and fuselages.<ref name = "Bowyer 43"/> The type persisted in use for training purposes into 1943 before being completely retired.<ref name = "lake 89"/>

==Variants==
;Manchester ''L7246''
:First prototype originally with twin tail. Due to lack of directional stability, it had a third fin added. Became a training airframe in November 1942.
;Manchester ''L7247''
:Second prototype first flown 26 May 1940, fitted with armament, became a training airframe in October 1941.
;Manchester I
:First production version with 90 ft wing and 28 ft twin tail and additional central fin later added; 20 of this type were built.{{efn|Designations are internal Avro ones circa November 1939, the Air Ministry only used the 'Mk I' and 'MK IA' designations to differentiate between the early triple-fin and later twin-fin variants.}}
;Manchester IA
:Main production version with 90 ft wing, twin tail with 33 ft enlarged tailplane. It also had taller fins and rudders.
;Manchester IB
:As Manchester IA but with thin-gauge fuselage skin.
;Manchester IC
:As Manchester IB but with 2 x 2,520 hp [[Bristol Centaurus]]. Installed in one airframe but never flown.{{efn|Centaurus development had been halted to enable Bristol to concentrate effort on the [[Bristol Hercules|Hercules]].}}
;Manchester II
:As Manchester IB but with 95 ft wing.
;Manchester IIA
:As Manchester II but with 2 x Bristol Centaurus. None built.
;Manchester III ''BT308''
:This version was powered by four Merlin engines with increased wingspan; also, the three fins and rudders of the Manchester I were retained. This variant was the first prototype of the later [[Avro Lancaster]].{{efn|The initial Avro proposal for 4 x Rolls-Royce Merlins was made September 1939. Alternative engine projects included 2 x 2,100 hp [[Napier Sabre]]s, 2 x Bristol Hercules (layout only, 1940), 2 x Bristol Pegasus, layout only, 1940.{{cn|date=August 2023}} }}

===Orders and production===
* Two prototypes were ordered against specification P.13/36 and were built by Avro at Ringway.
* Production contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Avro to be built at Chadderton, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 157 had been built, delivered between August 1940 and November 1941.
* Production contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Fairey to be built at Ringway, order cancelled.
* Production contract for 200 Manchesters placed with Metropolitan-Vickers at Trafford Park, contract changed to Lancaster I production after 43 had been built, delivered between March 1941 and March 1942. The first 12 aircraft being built on the Trafford Park production line were destroyed in a German air raid on 23 December 1940, not being completed they are not included in the total aircraft built.
* Production contract for 150 Manchesters placed with Armstrong-Whitworth, order cancelled.
In total two prototypes and 200 production aircraft were built before the production lines changed to building the four-engine Lancaster.

==Operators==
;{{Flag|Australia}}
* [[Royal Australian Air Force]]
** [[No. 460 Squadron RAAF]] (August 1942 - October 1942) <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.adf-serials.com.au/manchester.htm|title = ADF Serials - Avro Manchester}}</ref>

;{{flag|Canada|1921}}
* [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]
** [[No. 408 Squadron RCAF]]
** [[No. 420 Squadron RCAF]]

;{{UK}}
* [[Royal Air Force]]
** [[No. 49 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Scampton (April 1942 – June 1942)
** [[No. 50 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Skellingthorpe (April 1942 – June 1942)
** [[No. 61 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Hemswell (June 1941 – June 1942)
** [[No. 83 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Scampton (December 1941 – June 1942)
** [[No. 97 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Waddington then RAF Coningsby (February 1941 – February 1942)
** [[No. 106 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Coningsby (February 1942 – June 1942)
** [[No. 207 Squadron RAF]] at RAF Waddington then RAF Bottesford (November 1940 – March 1942)
** No. 25 Operation Training Unit at RAF Finningley
** No. 44 Conversion Flight
** No. 1485 Flight RAF
** No. 1654 Heavy Conversion Unit
** No. 1656 Heavy Conversion Unit
** No. 1660 Heavy Conversion Unit
** No. 1668 Heavy Conversion Unit
** Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment
** Torpedo Development Unit at RAF Gosport

==Specifications (Manchester Mk I)==
[[File:Avro Manchester.png|330px|right|Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, with profile detail of Mk.IA]]
{{Aircraft specs
|ref= Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57,<ref name="thetford raf"/> Avro Aircraft since 1908,<ref name="jackson avro"/> Flight<ref name="auto"/>
|prime units?=imp
<!--
        General characteristics
-->
|crew=7
|length ft=70
|length in=
|length note=
|span ft=90
|span in=1
|span note=
|height ft=19
|height in=6
|height note=
|wing area sqft=1131
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes -->
|airfoil='''root:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA]] 23018; '''tip:''' NACA 23012<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
|empty weight lb=31200
|empty weight note=
|gross weight lb=
|gross weight note=
|max takeoff weight lb=50000
|max takeoff weight note=
|fuel capacity=
|more general=
<!--
        Powerplant
-->
|eng1 number=2
|eng1 name=[[Rolls-Royce Vulture I]]
|eng1 type=X-24 liquid-cooled piston engine
|eng1 hp=1760
|eng1 note=

|prop blade number=3
|prop name=constant-speed feathering propellers
|prop dia ft=<!-- propeller aircraft -->
|prop dia in=<!-- propeller aircraft -->
|prop dia note=
<!--
        Performance
-->
|max speed mph=265
|max speed note=at {{cvt|17000|ft}}
|cruise speed mph=
|cruise speed note=
|stall speed mph=
|stall speed note=
|never exceed speed mph=
|never exceed speed note=
|minimum control speed mph=
|minimum control speed note=
|range miles=1200
|range note=with maximum bomb load of {{cvt|10350|lb|0}}
|combat range miles=
|combat range note=
|ferry range miles=
|ferry range note=
|endurance=<!-- if range unknown -->
|ceiling ft=19200
|ceiling note=
|g limits=<!-- aerobatic -->
|roll rate=<!-- aerobatic -->
|climb rate ftmin=
|climb rate note=
|time to altitude=
|wing loading lb/sqft=
|wing loading note=
|fuel consumption lb/mi=
|power/weight=
|thrust/weight=

|more performance=<!--
* '''Take-off run:''' {{cvt||ft|0}}
* '''Take-off distance to {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt||ft|0}}
* '''Landing run:''' {{cvt||ft|0}}
* '''Landing distance from {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt||ft|0}}-->
<!--
        Armament
-->
|guns=8 × [[.303 British|0.303 in (7.7 mm)]] [[M1919 Browning machine gun|Browning machine guns]], (in [[Nash & Thompson]] nose (2), dorsal (2) and tail (4) turrets)
|bombs= {{cvt|10350|lb|0}} bomb load
|avionics=
}}

==See also==
{{aircontent
<!-- designs which were developed into or from this aircraft: -->
|related=
* [[Avro Lancaster]]

<!-- aircraft similar in appearance or function to this design: -->
|similar aircraft=
* [[Handley Page Halifax]]
* [[Heinkel He 177]]
* [[Vickers Warwick]]

<!-- any lists that are appropriate: -->
|lists=
* [[List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force]]
* [[List of aircraft of World War II]]
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]

<!-- other articles that could be useful to connect with: -->
|see also=
* [[Leslie Manser|Flying Officer Leslie Thomas Manser VC]]
}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite magazine |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html |title=Avro Manchester – Details and Performance of Our Heaviest Twin-engined Bomber |magazine=Flight |date=4 June 1942 |pages=555–557 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305154103/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201181.html  |archive-date= 2016-03-05 }}
* [[Chaz Bowyer|Bowyer, Chaz]]. ''Aircraft Profile No. 260: Avro Manchester.'' Windsor, UK: Profile Publications, 1974.
* Buttler, Tony. ''British Secret Projects: Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950.'' Hickley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. {{ISBN|978-1-8578-0179-8}}.
* Jackson, A.J. ''Avro Aircraft since 1908''. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, Second edition, 1990. {{ISBN|0-85177-834-8}}.
* Lake, Jon. ''The Great Book of Bombers: The World's Most Important Bombers from World War I to the Present Day.'' Zenith Imprint, 2002. {{ISBN|0-76031-347-4}}.
* Lewis, Peter. ''The British Bomber since 1914.'' London: Putnam, Second edition, 1974. {{ISBN|0-37010-040-9}}.
* "Manchesters". ''Aeromilitaria No. 2''.  Tonbridge, Kent, UK: [[Air-Britain]] (Historians) Ltd., 1990.
* Mason, Francis K. ''The British Bomber since 1914.'' London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. {{ISBN|0-85177-861-5}}.
* Sinnott, Colin. ''The RAF and Aircraft Design 1923–1939: Air Staff Operational Requirements'' (Studies in Air Power). London: Frank Cass, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-5158-3}}.
* Thetford, Owen. ''Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57.'' London: Putnam, First edition, 1957. {{ISBN|0-37000-101-X}}.
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
* Chant, Christopher. ''Lancaster: The History of Britain's Most Famous World War II Bomber''. Bath, UK: Parragon, 2003. {{ISBN|0-75258-769-2}}.
* Holmes, Harry. ''Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company''. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press Ltd, Second edition, 2004. {{ISBN|1-86126-651-0}}.
* Holmes, Harry. ''Avro Lancaster (Combat Legend series)''. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2002. {{ISBN|1-84037-376-8}}.
* Jackson, Robert. ''Aircraft of World War II''. Enderby, UK: Silverdale Books, 2006. {{ISBN|1-85605-751-8}}.
* Kirby, Robert. ''Avro Manchester: The Legend Behind the Manchester''. Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 1995. {{ISBN|1-85780-028-1}}.
* Mackay, R.S.G. ''Lancaster in action''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1982. {{ISBN|0-89747-130-X}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Avro Manchester}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121208073605/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/manchester.html Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary – Avro Manchester]
* [http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=691 History, Specifications and Pictures of the Avro Manchester]
* [http://www.lancaster-archive.com/ The Lancaster & Manchester Bomber Archive]
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/r-a-fs-new-bomber 1941 British Pathe news report on the newly introduced Avro Manchester]

{{Avro aircraft}}
{{Avro Lancaster family}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Avro aircraft|Manchester]]
[[Category:1930s British bomber aircraft]]
[[Category:Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1939]]
[[Category:Twin-tail aircraft]]
[[Category:Aircraft with retractable conventional landing gear]]