Editing Bald eagle

{{Short description|Bird of prey species of North America}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|American eagle}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = Pleistocene-Recent {{fossil_range|0.3|0|ref=<ref>{{cite web |title=Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766 (bald eagle) |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=133778&is_real_user=1 |website=PBDB}}</ref>}}
| name = Bald eagle
| image = Bald eagle about to fly in Alaska (2016).jpg
| image_caption = Bald eagle preparing to fly at [[Kachemak Bay]] in [[Alaska]], United States
| image2 = Bald_Eagle_Yellowstone_National_Park.ogg
| image2_caption = A recording of a bald eagle at [[Yellowstone National Park]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2024|title=''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' |page=e.T22695144A264598530 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2024-2.RLTS.T22695144A264598530.en}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Appendices {{!}} CITES |url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php |access-date=January 14, 2022 |website=cites.org}}</ref>
| genus = Haliaeetus
| species = leucocephalus
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[12th edition of Systema Naturae|1766]])
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
* ''H. l. leucocephalus'' – [[southern bald eagle]]
* ''H. l. washingtoniensis'' – [[northern bald eagle]]
| synonyms = *''Falco leucocephalus'' <small>Linnaeus, 1766</small>
''Falco pygargus'' <small>Daudin, 1800 (nec Linnaeus)</small>

''Falco ossifragus''  <small>Shaw, 1809  (nec Linnaeus)</small>
* ''Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus'' <small>Townsend, 1897 (=''H. l. washingtoniensis'')</small>
| range_map = Distribution H. leucocephalus.png
| range_map_caption = Bald eagle range
<div style="text-align:left;">
{{legend|#b13f31|border=1px solid #978e73|Breeding resident}}
{{legend|#ce6256|border=1px solid #978e73|Breeding summer visitor}}
{{legend|#e58e7b|border=1px solid #978e73|Winter visitor}}
{{legend|#f2c1ad|border=1px solid #978e73|On migration only}}
<small>Star: accidental records</small></div>
}}

The '''bald eagle''' ('''''Haliaeetus leucocephalus''''') is a [[bird of prey]] found in [[North America]]. A [[sea eagle]], it has two known [[subspecies]] and forms a [[Species complex|species pair]] with the [[white-tailed eagle]] (''Haliaeetus albicilla''), which occupies the same niche as the bald eagle in the [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]. Its range includes most of [[Canada]] and [[Alaska]], all of the [[contiguous United States]], and northern [[Mexico]]. It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.

The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder that subsists mainly on [[fish]], upon which it swoops down and snatches from the water with its talons. It builds the largest [[bird nest|nest]] of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species, up to {{convert|4|m|ft|sp=us|abbr = on}} deep, {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sp=us|abbr = on}} wide, and {{convert|1|t|ST|sp = us}} in weight. [[Sexual maturity]] is attained at the age of four to five years.

Bald eagles are not bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, "white-headed". The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical in [[plumage]], but females are about 25 percent larger than males. The yellow beak is large and hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown.

The bald eagle is the [[national bird]] of the [[United States]] since 2024 and appears on [[Great Seal of the United States|its seal]]. In the late 20th century it was on the brink of [[local extinction|extirpation]] in the contiguous United States, but measures such as banning the practice of hunting bald eagles and banning the use of the harmful pesticide [[DDT]] slowed the decline of their population. Populations have since recovered, and the species' status was upgraded from "[[Endangered species|endangered]]" to "[[Threatened species|threatened]]" in 1995 and removed from the list altogether in 2007.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Bald Eagle Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Closeup of the eponymous white head]]
The bald eagle is placed in the genus ''Haliaeetus'' ([[sea eagle]]s), and gets both its common and specific scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. ''Bald'' in the English name is from an older usage meaning "having white on the face or head" rather than "hairless", referring to the white head feathers contrasting with the darker body.<ref name="b7" /> 

The genus name is [[Neo-Latin]]: ''Haliaeetus'' (from the {{langx|grc|ἁλιάετος|haliaetos|sea eagle}}),<ref>{{LSJ|a(lia/etos|ἁλιάετος|longref}}</ref> and the specific name, ''leucocephalus'', is Latinized ({{langx|grc|λευκός|leukos|white}})<ref>{{LSJ|leuko/s2|λευκός|shortref}}</ref> and ({{langx|grc|κεφαλή|kephalḗ|head|label=none}}).<ref>{{LSJ|kefalh/|κεφαλή|shortref}}</ref><ref name="Georgia" />

The bald eagle was one of the many species originally described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his 18th-century work ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', under the name ''Falco leucocephalus''.<ref name="b3" />

The bald eagle forms a [[species pair]] with the [[white-tailed eagle]] of [[Eurasia]]. This species pair consists of a white-headed and a tan-headed species of roughly equal size; the white-tailed eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage. The two species fill the same [[ecological niche]] in their respective ranges. The pair diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the Early [[Miocene]] (c. 10&nbsp;[[Ma (unit)|Ma BP]]) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle [[Oligocene]], 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this [[genus]].<ref name="j2" />

=== Subspecies ===
There are two recognized [[subspecies]] of bald eagle:<ref name="hbw" /><ref name="ITIS" />
* ''H. l. leucocephalus'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1766)</small> is the nominate subspecies. It is found in the southern United States and [[Baja California Peninsula]].<ref name="ESRP" />
* ''H. l. washingtoniensis'' <small>(Audubon, 1827)</small>, synonym ''H. l. alascanus'' <small>(Townsend, 1897)</small>, the northern subspecies, is larger than southern nominate ''leucocephalus''. It is found in the northern United States, Canada and Alaska.<ref name="hbw" /><ref name="ESRP" />

==Description==
[[File:Bald Eagle Plumage.jpg|thumb|alt=A portrait style photo of a bald eagle emphasizing its feathers.|Bald eagle plumage|left]]
The [[plumage]] of an adult bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head and tail. The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge shaped. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration, but [[sexual dimorphism]] is evident in the species, in that females are 25% larger than males.<ref name="hbw" /> The beak, feet and [[iris (anatomy)|irises]] are bright yellow. The legs are feather free, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons. The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes.<ref name="ADW" /> The [[beak]] is large and hooked, with a yellow [[cere]].<ref name="Cornell" /> The adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range. The closely related [[African fish eagle]] (''Haliaeetus vocifer'') (from far outside the bald eagle's range) also has a brown body (albeit of somewhat more rufous hue), white head and tail, but differs from the bald eagle in having a white chest and black tip to the bill.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees" />[[File:Bald Eagle flying over ice (Southern Ontario, Canada).jpg|thumb|Bald eagle anatomy]]
The plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.<ref name=hbw/><ref name="ADW"/> Immature bald eagles are distinguishable from the [[golden eagle]] (''Aquila chrysaetos''), the only other very large, non-vulturine raptorial bird in North America, in that the former has a larger, more protruding head with a larger [[beak]], straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat and feathers which do not completely cover the legs. When seen well, the golden eagle is distinctive in plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle, with a reddish-golden patch to its [[nape]] and (in immature birds) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing.<ref name="sibley"/>

[[File:Bald Eagle, wings and tail feathers.jpg|thumb|A bald eagle showing its wingspan]]
[[File:Bald eagle foot closeup.jpg|thumb|Closeup of a museum specimen's foot, showing the toepads' spiny papillae]]
The bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor ([[Accipitriformes|accipitrid]]) in North America. The only larger species of raptor-like bird is the [[California condor]] (''Gymnogyps californianus''), a [[New World vulture]] that today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids.<ref name="Travsky"/> However, the golden eagle, averaging {{convert|4.18|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|63|cm|in|abbr=on}} in [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord length]] in its American race (''Aquila chrysaetos canadensis''), is merely {{convert|455|g|lb|abbr=on}} lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald eagle in mean wing chord length by around {{convert|3|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Watson/> Additionally, the bald eagle's close cousins, the relatively longer-winged but shorter-tailed [[white-tailed eagle]] and the overall larger [[Steller's sea eagle]] (''Haliaeetus pelagicus''), may, rarely, wander to coastal Alaska from Asia.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>

The bald eagle has a body length of {{convert|70|–|102|cm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}}. Typical wingspan is between {{convert|1.8|and|2.3|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} and mass is normally between {{convert|3|and|6.3|kg|lb|sp=us|abbr = on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Females are about 25% larger than males, averaging as much as {{convert|5.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and against the males' average weight of {{convert|4.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=hbw/><ref name=b1/><ref name=r1/><ref name=b2/>

The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds with [[Bergmann's rule]]: the species increases in size further away from the equator and the tropics. For example, eagles from [[South Carolina]] average {{convert|3.27|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in mass and {{convert|1.88|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} in wingspan, smaller than their northern counterparts.<ref name="Murphy"/> One field guide in Florida listed similarly small sizes for bald eagles there, at about {{convert|4.13|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maehr |first1=D. S. |last2=Kale |first2=H. W. |year=2005 |title=Florida's Birds: A Field Guide and Reference |publisher=Pineapple Press Inc}}</ref> Of intermediate size, 117 migrant bald eagles in [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]] were found to average {{convert|4.22|kg|lb|abbr=on}} but this was mostly (possibly post-dispersal) juvenile eagles, with six adults here averaging {{convert|4.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patterson |first1=D.A. |last2=McClelland |first2=B.R. |last3=Shea |first3=D.S. |last4=McClelland |first4=P.T. |year=1998 |title=Size Variation of Migrant Bald Eagles at Glacier National Park, Montana |journal=J. Raptor Res. |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=120–25}}</ref> Wintering eagles in Arizona (winter weights are usually the highest of the year since, like many raptors, they spend the highest percentage of time foraging during winter) were found to average {{convert|4.74|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Zylo |first1=M. T. |year=2012 |title=Bald eagles (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') wintering in northern Arizona select perches based on food availability, visibility and cover |type=MS thesis |publisher=Northern Arizona University |isbn=978-1-267-58789-3 |id={{ProQuest|1039149407}}}}</ref>

The largest eagles are from [[Alaska]], where large females may weigh more than {{convert|7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and span {{convert|2.44|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} across the wings.<ref name="Cornell"/><ref name=r2/> A survey of adult weights in Alaska showed that females there weighed on average {{convert|5.35|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, respectively, and males weighed {{convert|4.23|kg|lb|abbr=on}} against immatures which averaged {{convert|5.09|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4.05|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the two sexes.<ref name="Brown">{{cite book |title=Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World |first1=Leslie |last1=Brown |first2=Dean |last2=Amadon |author-link2=Dean Amadon |publisher=The Wellfleet Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-1-55521-472-2}}.</ref><ref name= Palmer>{{cite book |editor-last1=Palmer |editor-first1=R. S. |year=1988 |title=Handbook of North American Birds Volume VI: Diurnal Raptors (Part 1) |publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> An Alaskan adult female eagle that was considered outsized weighed some {{convert|7.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gende |first1=S. M. |year=2008 |chapter=Perspectives on the Breeding Biology of Bald Eagles in Southeast Alaska |title=Bald Eagles in Alaska |editor-first1=Bruce A. |editor-last1=Wright |editor-first2=Phil |editor-last2=Schempf |publisher=University of Alaska Southeast}}</ref> R.S. Palmer listed a record from 1876 in [[Wyoming County, New York]] of an enormous adult bald eagle that was shot and reportedly scaled {{convert|8.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Palmer/> Among standard linear measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|51.5|-|69|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|23|-|37|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|8|to|11|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name="BNA">{{Cite journal |last=Buehler |first=David A. |date=2022 |title=Bald Eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') |editor1=P. G. Rodewald |editor2=S. G. Mlodinow |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/baleag/cur/introduction |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.baleag.02}}</ref> The [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] reportedly ranges from {{convert|3|to|7.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, while the measurement from the [[gape]] to the tip of the bill is {{convert|7|-|9|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name=j1/>  The bill size is unusually variable: Alaskan eagles can have up to twice the bill length of birds from the southern United States ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Louisiana]], Florida), with means including both sexes of {{convert|6.83|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4.12|cm|in|abbr=on}} in culmen length, respectively, from these two areas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Imler |first1=R. H. |last2=Kalmbach |first2=E. R. |year=1955 |title=The Bald Eagle and its economic status |volume=30 |publisher=US Government Printing Office}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=H. |last2=Ridgway |first2=R. |year=1950 |title=The birds of north and middle America. Part XI. Cathartidae to Falconidae |journal=U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. |volume=50}}</ref>

The call consists of weak staccato, chirping whistles, ''kleek kik ik ik ik'', somewhat similar in cadence to a [[gull]]'s call. The calls of young birds tend to be harsher and shriller than those of adults.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name="sibley"/>

==Range==
[[File:Bald-Eagle-9114-cropped.jpg|thumb|right|Bald eagle in flight at Yellowstone National Park, [[Wyoming]]]]
The bald eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the [[continental United States]], and northern Mexico. It is the only [[sea eagle]] [[endemism|endemic]] to North America. Occupying varied habitats from the [[bayou]]s of [[Louisiana]] to the [[Sonoran Desert]] and the eastern deciduous forests of [[Quebec]] and [[New England]], northern birds are [[bird migration|migratory]], while southern birds are resident, remaining on their breeding territory all year. At minimum population, in the 1950s, it was largely restricted to [[Alaska]], the [[Aleutian Islands]], northern and eastern Canada, and Florida.<ref name="Bull87"/> From 1966 to 2015 bald eagle numbers increased substantially throughout its winter and breeding ranges,<ref>{{cite web |title=BBS Trend Maps – Bald eagle ''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' |url=https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/tr2015/trend2015_v3.html |publisher=Patuxent Wildlife Research Center |access-date=December 7, 2018}}</ref> and as of 2018 the species nests in every continental state and province in the United States and Canada.<ref name="Bio"/>

The majority of bald eagles in Canada are found along the [[British Columbia]] coast while large populations are found in the forests of [[Alberta]], Saskatchewan, [[Manitoba]] and [[Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/animal-facts-bald-eagle |title=Animal Facts: Bald Eagle |date=August 14, 2006 |access-date=October 22, 2018}}</ref> Bald eagles also congregate in certain locations in winter. From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in [[Squamish, British Columbia]], about halfway between [[Vancouver]] and [[Whistler, British Columbia|Whistler]]. In March 2024, bald eagles were found nesting in [[Toronto]] for the first time.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cecco |first=Leyland |date=March 10, 2024 |title=Bald eagles seen nesting in Toronto for first time in city's recorded history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/10/bald-eagles-nesting-toronto-first-time-history |access-date=March 10, 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The birds primarily gather along the [[Squamish River|Squamish]] and [[Cheakamus River|Cheakamus]] Rivers, attracted by the [[salmon]] spawning in the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle1.html |title=Bald Eagle Viewing Directory |access-date=August 20, 2007 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111205752/https://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle1.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Similar congregations of wintering bald eagles at open lakes and rivers, wherein fish are readily available for hunting or scavenging, are observed in the northern United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=Making their comeback |url=http://www.oswegocountynewsnow.com/news/making-their-comeback/article_c46c89fe-e316-11e6-8e83-072c9210971d.html |publisher=oswegocountynewsnow.com |date=January 22, 2017 |access-date=December 7, 2018}}</ref>

It has occurred as a [[vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in [[County Fermanagh]] on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a [[white-tailed eagle]]), and an exhausted juvenile was captured near [[Castleisland]], [[County Kerry]] on November 15, 1987.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/fd7744016cc242f2c23ec570762c136a |title=Bald Eagle Lands Exhausted in Ireland |work=Associated Press News |date=December 15, 1987}}</ref> There is also a record of it from Llyn Coron, [[Anglesey]], in the United Kingdom, from October 17, 1978;<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00901.x |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00901.x |title=British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee: 37th Report (October 2008) |journal=Ibis |date=2009 |volume=151 |pages=224–230|url-access=subscription }}</ref> the provenance of this individual eagle has remained in dispute.

==Habitat==
[[File:Bald Eagle, Ontario forest.jpg|thumb|In flight during a licensed performance in Ontario, Canada]]
[[File:Bald Eagle, training for falconry.jpg|thumb|During training at the Canadian Raptor Conservancy]]
The bald eagle occurs during its breeding season in virtually any kind of American [[wetland]] habitat such as [[Coast|seacoasts]], rivers, large lakes or [[marsh]]es or other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish. Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than {{convert|11|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}, and lakes with an area greater than {{convert|10|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us|abbr = on}} are optimal for breeding bald eagles.<ref name="Gov"/>

The bald eagle typically requires old-growth and mature stands of [[pinophyta|coniferous]] or [[hardwood]] trees for perching, roosting, and nesting. Tree species reportedly is less important to the eagle pair than the tree's height, composition and location.<ref name="Suring"/> Perhaps of paramount importance for this species is an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water. Selected trees must have good visibility, be over {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall, an open structure, and proximity to prey. If nesting trees are in standing water such as in a mangrove swamp, the nest can be located fairly low, at as low as {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground.<ref name="FPL"/> In a more typical tree standing on dry ground, nests may be located from {{convert|16|to|38|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. In [[Chesapeake Bay]], nesting trees averaged {{convert|82|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter and {{convert|28|m|ft|abbr=on}} in total height, while in Florida, the average nesting tree stands {{convert|23|m|ft|abbr=on}} high and is {{convert|23|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name=j3/><ref name=j4/> Trees used for nesting in the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem|Greater Yellowstone area]] average {{convert|27|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.<ref name="Swenson, J. E. 1986"/> Trees or forest used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than 60%, and no less than 20%, and be in close proximity to water.<ref name="Gov"/> Most nests have been found within {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} of open water. The greatest distance from open water recorded for a bald eagle nest was over {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in Florida.<ref name="Travsky"/>

Bald eagle nests are often very large in order to compensate for size of the birds. The largest recorded nest was found in Florida in 1963, and was measured at {{convert|2.9|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|6.1|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=on}} deep.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/largest-birds-nest/|title=Largest bird's nest|publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com|access-date=October 5, 2013|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20131028222150/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/largest-birds-nest/|archive-date=October 28, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In Florida, nesting habitats often consist of [[mangrove]] swamps, the shorelines of lakes and rivers, [[pine]]lands, seasonally flooded [[flatwoods]], [[Swamp|hardwood swamps]], and open [[prairie]]s and [[pasture]]land with scattered tall trees. Favored nesting trees in Florida are [[Pinus elliottii|slash pines]] (''Pinus elliottii''), [[Pinus palustris|longleaf pines]] (''P. palustris''), [[Pinus taeda|loblolly pines]] (''P. taeda'') and [[Cupressaceae|cypress trees]], but for the southern coastal areas where mangroves are usually used.<ref name="FPL"/> In [[Wyoming]], groves of mature [[Populus sect. Aigeiros|cottonwoods]] or tall pines found along streams and rivers are typical bald eagle nesting habitats. Wyoming eagles may inhabit habitat types ranging from large, old-growth stands of [[Pinus ponderosa|ponderosa pines]] (''Pinus ponderosa'') to narrow strips of riparian trees surrounded by rangeland.<ref name="Travsky"/> In [[Southeast Alaska]], [[Picea sitchensis|Sitka spruce]] (''Picea sitchensis'') provided 78% of the nesting trees used by eagles, followed by [[Tsuga|hemlocks]] (''Tsuga'') at 20%.<ref name="Suring"/> Increasingly, eagles nest in human-made reservoirs stocked with fish.<ref name="FPL"/>

[[File:2010-bald-eagle-with-fish.jpg|thumb|left|With freshly caught fish in [[Kodiak Island|Kodiak]]]]
The bald eagle is usually quite sensitive to human activity while nesting, and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance. It chooses sites more than {{convert|1.2|km|mi|abbr=on}} from low-density human disturbance and more than {{convert|1.8|km|mi|abbr=on}} from medium- to high-density human disturbance.<ref name="Gov"/> However, bald eagles will occasionally nest in large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities, such as Hardtack Island on the [[Willamette River]] in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], Oregon or [[John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum]] in [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity.<ref name=r3/><ref name=r4/> Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance, a family of bald eagles moved to the [[Harlem]] neighborhood in New York City in 2010.<ref name=r5/>

While wintering, bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive. They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and (in northern climes) partially unfrozen waters. Alternately, non-breeding or wintering bald eagles, particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance, spend their time in various upland, terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways. In the northern half of North America (especially the interior portion), this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible. Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium-sized mammals, such as [[prairie]]s, [[meadow]]s or [[tundra]], or open forests with regular carrion access.<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="Suring"/>

==Behavior==
The bald eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on [[thermal]] convection currents. It reaches speeds of {{convert|56|–|70|km/h|mph|sp=us|abbr = on}} when gliding and flapping, and about {{convert|48|km/h|mph|sp=us|abbr = on}} while carrying fish.<ref name="Terres"/> Its dive speed is between {{convert|120|-|160|km/h|mph|sp=us|abbr = on}}, though it seldom dives vertically.<ref name=r17/> Regarding their flying abilities, despite being morphologically less well adapted to faster flight than [[golden eagle]]s (especially during dives), the bald eagle is considered surprisingly maneuverable in flight. Bald eagles have also been recorded catching up to and then swooping under geese in flight, turning over and thrusting their talons into the other bird's breast.<ref name= Palmer/> It is partially migratory, depending on location. If its territory has access to open water, it remains there year-round, but if the body of water freezes during the winter, making it impossible to obtain food, it migrates to the south or to the coast. A number of populations are subject to post-breeding dispersal, mainly in juveniles; Florida eagles, for example, will disperse northwards in the summer.<ref name=r8/> The bald eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of [[thermal]]s, [[updraft]]s, and food resources. During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain. Migration generally takes place during the daytime, usually between the local hours of 8:00&nbsp;a.m. and 6:00&nbsp;p.m., when thermals are produced by the sun.<ref name="ADW"/>

==Diet and feeding==
The bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey. Fish often comprise most of the eagle's diet throughout their range.<ref name="LPZBaldEagle">{{cite web |url=http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/bald-eagle |title=Bald Eagle Fact Sheet, Lincoln Park Zoo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531195236/http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/bald-eagle |archive-date=May 31, 2012 |website=Lpzoo.org |date=February 2, 1900 |access-date=August 22, 2012}}</ref> In 20 food habit studies across the species' range, fish comprised 56% of the diet of nesting eagles, birds 28%, mammals 14% and other prey 2%.<ref name="Stalmaster">{{cite book |last1=Stalmaster |first1=M.V. |year=1987 |title=The Bald Eagle |publisher=Universe Books |location=New York}}</ref> More than 400 species are known to be included in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, far more than its ecological equivalent in the Old World, the [[white-tailed eagle]], is known to take. Despite its considerably lower population, the bald eagle may come in second amongst all North American accipitrids, slightly behind only the [[red-tailed hawk]], in number of prey species recorded.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref name= Sherrod2>{{cite journal |last1=Sherrod |first1=S. K. |year=1978 |title=Diets of North American Falconiformes |journal=Raptor Res |volume=12 |issue=3/4 |pages=49–121}}</ref><ref name= Collins>{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=P. W. |last2=Guthrie |first2=D. A. |last3=Rick |first3=T. C. |last4=Erlandson |first4=J. M. |year=2005 |title=Analysis of prey remains excavated from an historic bald eagle nest site on San Miguel Island, California |journal=Proceedings of the Sixth California Islands Symposium |location=Arcata, CA |publisher=Institute for Wildlife Studies |pages=103–120}}</ref>

===Behavior===
[[File:Bald Eagle and salmon.jpg|Juvenile with [[salmon]], [[Katmai National Park and Preserve|Katmai National Park]]|thumb]]
To hunt fish, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its [[talons]]. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish. [[Osprey]]s also have this adaptation.<ref name="Terres"/> Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight, with prey up to the size of [[Canada goose|Canada geese]] attacked and killed in mid-air.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> It has been estimated that the bald eagle's grip (measured as newtons per square meter, or pounds per square inch) is ten times stronger than that of a human.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gripping Strength of an Eagle – Understanding psi 101 |publisher=Hawkquest |access-date=July 20, 2012 |url=http://www.hawkquest.org/TA/XL/Gripping.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hawkquest.org/TA/XL/Gripping.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight, but if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle may be dragged into the water. Bald eagles can swim, but in some cases, they drag their catch ashore with their talons. Still, some eagles drown or succumb to [[hypothermia]].<ref name="Potts1999">{{cite book |last=Potts |first=Steve |title=The Bald Eagle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uBUsVf9h5cUC&pg=PA17 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |year=1999 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-7368-8483-9 |page=17}}</ref> Many sources claim that bald eagles, like all large eagles, cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions.<ref name="FPL"/><ref name="Gill"/> On numerous occasions, when large prey such as large fish including mature salmon or geese are attacked, eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored, low flight over the water to a bank, where they then finish off and dismember the prey.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref name= Sherrod2/> When food is abundant, an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop. Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable.<ref name="FPL"/> Occasionally, bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey, especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons, with one bird distracting potential prey, while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it.<ref name= Cornell/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Edwards |first1=C.C. |year=1969 |title=Winter behavior and population dynamics of American eagles in Utah |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Brigham Young University |location=Provo, UT |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/7677/ |hdl=1877/Letd163}}</ref><ref name=j25/> While hunting waterfowl, bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly, hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught (white-tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way). When hunting concentrated prey, a successful catch often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully.<ref name="BNA"/>

They obtain much of their food as [[carrion]] or via a practice known as [[kleptoparasitism]], by which they steal prey away from other predators. Due to their dietary habits, bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans.<ref name="Travsky"/> Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience, adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles, which often obtain their food from scavenging.<ref name="Todd"/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Harmata |first1=A. R. |year=1984 |title=Bald Eagles of the San Luis valley, Colorado: their winter ecology and spring migration |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Montana State University |location=Bozeman |url=https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/8600}}</ref> They are not very selective about the condition or origin, whether provided by humans, other animals, auto accidents or natural causes, of a carcass's presence, but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence. They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though carcasses of [[ungulate]]s and large fish are seemingly preferred.<ref name="BNA"/> Congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffin |first1=C. R. |first2=T. S. |last2=Baskett |first3=R. D. |last3=Sparrowe |year=1982 |title=Ecology of Bald Eagles wintering near a waterfowl concentration |series=Special Scientific Report - Wildlife |volume=247 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps (dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska)<ref name="Sherrod"/> and fish-processing plants.<ref name="peregrinefund.org">{{Cite web|url=https://peregrinefund.org/explore-raptors-species/eagles/bald-eagle|title=Bald Eagle &#124; The Peregrine Fund|website=peregrinefund.org}}</ref>

===Fish===
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus in flight 2cr.jpg|thumb|right|In flight with freshly caught fish]]
[[File:31 White-headed Eagle.jpg|thumb|left|Feeding on catfish and other various fishes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Audubon |first=John James |date=1840 |title=White-headed or bald Eagle, ''Haliaetus leucocephalus'', Linn. [Pl. 14] |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/319127 |journal=The Birds of America: From Drawings Made in the United States and Their Territories |volume=1 |pages=57––64 |doi=10.5962/p.319127}}</ref> Painted by [[John James Audubon]]]]
In [[Southeast Alaska]], fish comprise approximately 66% of the year-round diet of bald eagles and 78% of the prey brought to the nest by the parents.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Eagles living in the [[Columbia River Estuary]] in [[Oregon]] were found to rely on fish for 90% of their dietary intake.<ref name="Watson2"/>  At least 100 species of fish have been recorded in the bald eagle's diet.<ref name= Sherrod2/> From observation in the Columbia River, 58% of the fish were caught alive by the eagle, 24% were scavenged as carcasses and 18% were pirated away from other animals.<ref name="Watson2"/>

In the [[Pacific Northwest]], spawning [[trout]] and [[salmon]] provide most of the bald eagles' diet from late summer throughout fall.<ref name="Alaska"/> Though bald eagles occasionally catch live salmon, they usually scavenge spawned salmon carcass.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robards |first1=Fredrick C. |first2=Allan |last2=Taylor |first3=Allan |last3=Dwight |title=Bald Eagles in Alaska |year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kalmbach |first1=E. R. |first2=Ralph H. |last2=Imler |first3=Lee W. |last3=Arnold |title=The American eagles and their economic status |year=1964}}</ref> Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on [[pink salmon]] (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), [[coho salmon]] (''O. kisutch'') and, more locally, [[sockeye salmon]] (''O. nerka''), with [[Chinook salmon]] (''O. tshawytscha'').<ref name="Armstrong"/> Due to the Chinook salmon's large size ({{convert|12|to|18|kg|lb|abbr=on}} average adult size) probably being taken only as carrion and a single carcass can attract several eagles.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are [[Pacific herring]] (''Clupea pallasii''), [[sand lance|Pacific sand lance]] (''Ammodytes hexapterus'') and [[eulachon]] (''Thaleichthys pacificus'').<ref name="Armstrong"/> In Oregon's Columbia River Estuary, the most significant prey species were [[largescale sucker]]s (''Catostomus macrocheilus'') (17.3% of the prey selected there), [[American shad]] (''Alosa sapidissima''; 13%) and [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio''; 10.8%).<ref name="Watson2"/> Eagles living in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] in [[Maryland]] were found to subsist largely on [[American gizzard shad]] (''Dorosoma cepedianum''), [[threadfin shad]] (''Dorosoma petenense'') and [[white bass]] (''Morone chrysops'').<ref name="Mersmann"/> Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on [[catfish]], most prevalently the [[brown bullhead]] (''Ameiurus nebulosus'') and any species in the genus ''[[Ictalurus]]'' as well as [[mullet (fish)|mullet]], [[trout]], [[needlefish]], and [[American eel|eel]]s.<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="FPL"/><ref name=j5/> [[Chain pickerel]]s (''Esox niger'') and [[white sucker]]s (''Catostomus commersonii'') are frequently taken in interior [[Maine]].<ref name = 'Todd.'>{{cite journal |last1=Todd |first1=C. S. |display-authors=et al |title=Food habits of bald eagles in Maine |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |year=1982 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=636–645 |doi=10.2307/3808554 |jstor=3808554}}</ref> Wintering eagles on the [[Platte River]] in [[Nebraska]] preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp.<ref name=j15/> Bald eagles are also known to eat the following fish species: [[rainbow trout]] (''Oncorhynchus mykiss''), [[white bullhead|white catfish]] (''Ameiurus catus''), [[rock greenling]] (''Hexagrammos lagocephalus''), [[Pacific cod]] (''Gadus macrocephalus''), [[Atka mackerel]] (''Pleurogrammus monopterygius''), [[largemouth bass]] (''Micropterus salmoides''), [[northern pike]] (''Esox lucius''), [[striped bass]] (''Morone saxatilis''), [[dogfish shark]] (''Squalidae.sp'') and [[Blue walleye]] (''Sander vitreus'').<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Haliaeetus_leucocephalus/ |title=''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' (Bald eagle) |website=[[Animal Diversity Web]]}}</ref><ref name = 'Thomas C'>{{cite journal |first1=Thomas C. |last1=Dunstan |first2=James F. |last2=Harper |year=1975 |title=Food Habits of Bald Eagles in North-Central Minnesota |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.2307/3800476 |jstor=3800476}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'>{{cite book |last=Beans |first=Bruce E. |title=Eagle's Plume: The Struggle to Preserve the Life and Haunts of America's Bald Eagle |year=1996 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-80696-9 |oclc=35029744 |url=https://archive.org/details/eaglesplumestrug00bean}}</ref>

Fish taken by bald eagles varies in size, but bald eagles take larger fish than other piscivorous birds in North America, typically range from {{convert|20|to|75|cm|in|abbr=on}} and prefer {{convert|36|cm|in|abbr=on}} fish.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=Allyson |display-authors=etal |title=Mercury risk to avian piscivores across western United States and Canada |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=568 |year=2016 |pages=685–696 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.197 |pmid=26996522 |pmc=5461577 |bibcode=2016ScTEn.568..685J}}</ref> When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around [[Lake Britton]] in California, fish measuring {{convert|34|to|38|cm|in|abbr=on}} were taken 71.8% of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring {{convert|23|to|27.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} were chosen only 25% of the time.<ref name="Jenkins"/> At nests around [[Lake Superior]], the remains of fish (mostly [[Catostomus|suckers]]) were found to average {{convert|35.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} in total length.<ref name="Kozie"/> In the Columbia River estuary, most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure less than {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}}, but larger fish between {{convert|30|and|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} or even exceeding {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length also taken especially during the non-breeding seasons.<ref name="Watson2"/> They can take fish up to at least twice their own weight, such as large mature [[salmon]]s, [[carp]]s, or even [[muskellunge]] (''Esox masquinongy''), by dragging its catch with talons and pull toward ashore.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref>{{cite web |title=St. Croix surprise: Bald eagle reels in large muskie |url=https://www.twincities.com/2019/08/15/st-croix-surprise-bald-eagle-reels-in-large-muskie/ |publisher=Pioneer Press |date=August 16, 2019 |access-date=August 9, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bald Eagle Catching Salmon 8598 |url=http://www.digital-images.net/Gallery/Wildlife/Studies/Raptors/Eagles/Brackendale/brackendale.html |publisher=The Brackendale and Yellowstone page |access-date=February 10, 2023}}</ref> Much larger marine fish such as [[Pacific halibut]] (''Hippoglossus stenolepis'') and [[lemon shark]]s (''Negaprion brevirostris'') have been recorded among bald eagle prey though probably are only taken as young, as small, newly mature fish, or as carrion.<ref name= Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ofelt |first1=C. H. |year=1975 |title=Food habits of nesting Bald Eagles in southeast Alaska |journal=The Condor |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=337–338 |doi=10.2307/1366232 |jstor=1366232}}</ref>

[[Benthic zone|Benthic fishes]] such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface, though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards.<ref name="Mersmann"/> Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered, stunned or dead fish easily consumed.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Delong |first=D. C. Jr. |year=1990 |title=Effects of food on Bald Eagle distribution and abundance on the northern Chesapeake Bay: an experimental approach |type=MS thesis |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/41925 |hdl=10919/41925}}</ref> Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill, such as [[brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos''), [[Gray wolf|gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus'') and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes''), may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning, usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively. Eagles in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] need to consume {{convert|489|g|lb|abbr=on}} of fish each day for survival, with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter.<ref name=Stalmaster1/>

===Birds===
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald Eagle) 32.jpg|thumb|left|Bald eagle attacking an [[American coot]]]]
Behind fish, the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other [[Water bird|waterbirds]]. The contribution of such birds to the eagle's diet is variable, depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water's surface. Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7% to 80% of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities.<ref name="Watson2"/><ref name="Brisbin Jr.Mowbray2002"/> Overall, birds are the most diverse group in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, with 200 prey species recorded.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name= Sherrod2/><ref name= Collins/>

Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium-sized, such as [[western grebe]]s (''Aechmophorus occidentalis''), [[mallard]]s (''Anas platyrhynchos''), and [[American coot]]s (''Fulica americana'') as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with.<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="Watson2"/> American herring gull (''Larus smithsonianus'') are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around [[Lake Superior]].<ref name="Kozie"/> [[American black duck|Black duck]]s (''Anas rubripes''), [[common eider]]s (''Somateria mollissima''), and [[double-crested cormorant]]s (''Phalacrocorax auritus'') are also frequently taken in coastal [[Maine]]<ref name = 'Todd.'/> and [[velvet scoter]] (''Melanitta fusca'') was dominant prey in [[San Miguel Island]].<ref name='Erlandson.'>{{cite journal |last1=Erlandson |first1=Jon M. |display-authors=et al |title=Archaeological implications of a bald eagle nesting site at Ferrelo Point, San Miguel Island, California |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=255–271 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.05.002 |bibcode=2007JArSc..34..255E}}</ref>

[[File:Look out! (7172187224).jpg|thumb|right|A bald eagle prepares to pick off a common murre from Colony Rock in Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon, United States.]]
Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense against eagles by such species, bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages, from eggs to mature adults, and they can effectively cull large portions of a colony.<ref name="Henderson"/> Along some portions of the North Pacific coastline, bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly [[kelp]]-dwelling fish and supplementally [[sea otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'') pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish (possibly due to overfishing) and otters (cause unknown) have had steep population declines, causing concern for seabird conservation.<ref name="sciencedaily"/> Because of this more extensive predation, some biologist has expressed concern that [[murre]]s are heading for a "conservation collision" due to heavy eagle predation.<ref name="Henderson"/> Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active, burrow-nesting seabird species such as [[storm petrel]]s and [[shearwater]]s by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside.<ref name="Nocturnal"/> If a bald eagle flies close by, waterbirds will often fly away en masse, though they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle in other cases. when the birds fly away from a colony, this exposes their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as [[gull]]s.<ref name="Henderson"/>

While they usually target small to medium-sized seabirds, larger seabirds such as [[great black-backed gull]]s (''Larus marinus'') and [[northern gannet]]s (''Morus bassanus'') and [[brown pelican]]s (''Pelecanus occidentalis'') of all ages can successfully be taken by bald eagles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/330/articles/behavior |title=Great Black-backed Gull- Behavior- Birds of North America Online |author=Good, T.P. |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=January 7, 2013}}</ref><ref>Mowbray, Thomas B. "Northern Gannet — Behavior". Birds of North America Online. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved October 17, 2011</ref><ref>Shields, M. (2020). Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.brnpel.01</ref> Similarly, large waterbirds are occasionally killed. Geese such as wintering [[Emperor goose|emperor geese]] (''Chen canagica'') and [[snow goose|snow geese]] (''C. caerulescens''), which gather in large groups, sometimes becoming regular prey.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name="Gill"/> Smaller [[Ross's goose|Ross's geese]] (''Anser rossii'') are also taken, as well as large-sized [[Canada goose|Canada geese]] (''Branta canadensis'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graves |first1=Gary R. |title=Bald Eagle Swims to Shore with Ross's Goose |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=54 |issue=1 |year=2020 |pages=84–85 |doi=10.3356/0892-1016-54.1.84 |s2cid=214260050}}</ref><ref name="Mersmann"/> Predation on the largest subspecies (''Branta canadensis maxima'') has been reported.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bartley |first1=John |title=Bald Eagle kills and carries Giant Canada Goose |journal=Blue Jay |volume=46 |issue=2 |year=1988 |doi=10.29173/bluejay4868 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other large waterbird prey include [[common loon]]s (''Gavia immer'') of all ages.<ref>Windels, S. K., Beever, E. A., Paruk, J. D., Brinkman, A. R., Fox, J. E., Macnulty, C. C., ... & Osborne, D. C. (2013). Effects of water‐level management on nesting success of common loons. The Journal of wildlife management, 77(8), 1626–1638.</ref> Large wading birds can also fall prey to bald eagles. For the [[great blue heron]]s (''Ardea herodias''), bald eagles are their only serious enemies of all ages.<ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forbes |first=L. Scott |date=1987 |title=Predation on Adult Great Blue Herons: Is It Important? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1521242 |journal=Colonial Waterbirds |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=120–122 |doi=10.2307/1521242 |jstor=1521242|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Slightly larger [[Sandhill crane]]s (''Grus canadensis'') can be taken as well.<ref name="Wood"/> While adult [[whooping crane]]s (''Grus americana'') are too large and formidable, their chicks can fall prey to bald eagles.<ref name=b4/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=Gretchen A. |display-authors=et al |title=Postmortem evaluation of reintroduced migratory whooping cranes in eastern North America |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=45 |issue=1 |year=2009 |pages=29–40 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-45.1.29 |pmid=19204333 |s2cid=36783957 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2009JWDis..45...29C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rabbe |first1=Matthew R. |first2=Andrew J. |last2=Caven |first3=Joshua D. |last3=Wiese |title=First description of a Bald Eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') attempting depredation on an adult Whooping Crane (''Grus americana'') of the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population |journal=Monographs of the Western North American Naturalist |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2019 |pages=24–32}}</ref> They even occasionally prey on adult [[tundra swan]]s (''Cygnus columbianus'').<ref name=j20/> Young [[trumpeter swan]]s (''Cygnus buccinator'') are also taken, and an unsuccessful attack on an adult swan has been photographed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corace III |first1=R. Gregory |first2=Damon L. |last2=McCormick |first3=Vincent |last3=Cavalieri |title=Population growth parameters of a reintroduced trumpeter swan flock, Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Michigan, USA (1991-2004) |journal=Waterbirds |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=38–42 |doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[38:PGPOAR]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=86088372}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utahbirds.org/featarts/2008/EagleAndSwan.htm |title=Bald Eagle attacking a Trumpeter Swan |website=Utahbirds.org |access-date=August 21, 2012}}</ref>

Bald eagles have been occasionally recorded as killing other [[Bird of prey|raptors]]. In some cases, these may be attacks of competition or [[kleptoparasitism]] on rival species but end with the consumption of the dead victims. Nine species of other [[accipitrid]]s and owls are known to have been preyed upon by bald eagles. Owl prey species have ranged in size from [[western screech-owl]]s (''Megascops kennicotti'') to [[snowy owl]]s (''Bubo scandiacus'').<ref name= Palmer/><ref name= Sherrod2/><ref name= Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackman |first1=R. E. |last2=Hunt |first2=W. G. |last3=Jenkins |first3=J. M. |last4=Detrich |first4=P. J. |year=1999 |title=Prey of nesting bald eagles in northern California |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=87–96}}</ref> Larger diurnal raptors known to have fallen victim to bald eagles have included [[red-tailed hawk]]s (''Buteo jamaicensis''),<ref name="Leschner"/> [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=R. G. |last2=Estes |first2=J. A. |last3=Ricca |first3=M. A. |last4=Miles |first4=A. K. |last5=Forsman |first5=E. D. |year=2008 |title=Bald eagles and sea otters in the Aleutian archipelago: indirect effects of trophic cascades |journal=Ecology |volume=89 |issue=10 |pages=2725–2735 |doi=10.1890/07-1818.1 |pmid=18959310 |bibcode=2008Ecol...89.2725A}}</ref> [[northern goshawk]]s (''Accipiter gentilis''),<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Cartron |editor-first1=J. L. E. |year=2010 |chapter=Chapter 11: Northern Goshawk |title=Raptors of New Mexico |publisher=UNM Press |isbn=978-0-8263-4145-7}}</ref> [[osprey]]s (''Pandion haliaetus'')<ref name="MacDonald"/> and [[Black vulture|black]] (''Coragyps atratus'') and [[turkey vulture]]s (''Cathartes aura'').<ref name="Coleman"/>

===Mammals===
[[File:Bald Eagle on Seedskadee NWR (24062616030).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Carrying a caught [[cottontail rabbit]] in [[Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge]]]]
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus-whale-USFWS.jpg|thumb|right|A bald eagle on a whale carcass]]
[[Mammal]]ian preys are generally less frequently taken than fish or avian prey. However, in some regions, such as landlocked areas of North America, wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium-sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations, such as [[prairie dog]]s (''Cynomys'' sp.) and [[jackrabbit]]s (''Lepus'' sp.).<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="Jones"/> Bald eagles in [[Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge]] often hunt in pair to catch cottontails, jackrabbits and prairie dogs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sweetwaternow.com/seedskadee-officials-discuss-bald-eagle-hunting-strategies/ |title=Seedskadee Officials Discuss Bald Eagle Hunting Strategies |date=January 24, 2016}}</ref> They can attack and prey on rabbits and hares of nearly any size, from [[marsh rabbit]]s (''Sylvilagus palustris'') to [[black-tailed jackrabbit|black]] and [[white-tailed jackrabbit]]s (''Lepus californicus'' & ''L. townsendii''), and [[Arctic hare]]s (''Lepus arcticus'').<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980">{{cite journal |last1=McEwan |first1=Linda C. |first2=David H. |last2=Hirth |title=Food habits of the Bald Eagle in north-central Florida. |journal=The Condor |volume=82 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=229–231 |doi=10.2307/1367485 |jstor=1367485}}</ref><ref name = 'Kralovec'>{{cite journal |author=Kralovec, Mary L. |display-authors=et al |title=Nesting productivity, food habits, and nest sites of bald eagles in Colorado and southeastern Wyoming. |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |year=1992 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=356–361 |doi=10.2307/3671786 |jstor=3671786}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'/> In [[San Luis Valley]], white-tailed jackrabbits can be important prey.<ref name=j20/> Additionally, rodents such as [[montane vole]]s (''Microtus montanus''), [[brown rat]]s (''Rattus norvegicus''), and various [[squirrel]]s are taken as supplementary prey.<ref name = 'Kralovec'/><ref name ='ADW'/><ref name = 'Todd.'/> Larger rodents such as [[muskrat]]s (''Ondatra zibethicus''), young or small adult [[nutria]]s (''Myocastor coypus'') and [[groundhog]]s (''Marmota monax'') are also preyed upon.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burnam |first1=Jonathan |first2=Michael T. |last2=Mengak |title=Managing wildlife damage: Nutria (''Myocastor coypus'') |publisher=University of Georgia |year=2007 |hdl=10724/31054 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10724/31054}}</ref><ref>Wheeler, B. K. (2003). Raptors of eastern north America (p. 439). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> Even [[American porcupine]]s (''Erethizon dorsatum'') are reportedly attacked and killed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmata |first1=A. R. |first2=J. E. |last2=Toepfer |title=Fall migration of Bald Eagles produced in northern Saskatchewan |journal=Blue Jay |volume=43 |issue=4 |year=1985 |doi=10.29173/bluejay4393 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Where available, seal colonies can provide a lot of food. On [[Protection Island (Washington state)|Protection Island]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], they commonly feed on [[harbor seal]] (''Phoca vitulina'') afterbirths, still-borns and sickly seal pups.<ref name="Hayward"/> Similarly, bald eagles in Alaska readily prey on [[sea otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'') pups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherrod |first1=S. K. |first2=C. M. |last2=White |first3=F. S. L. |last3=Williamson |year=1976 |title=Biology of the Bald Eagle on Amchitka Island, Alaska |journal=The Living Bird |volume=15 |pages=143–182}}</ref> Small to medium-sized terrestrial mammalian carnivores can be taken infrequently. [[Mustelid]] including [[American marten]]s (''Martes pennanti''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Roger A. |last1=Powell |title=''Martes pennanti'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=156 |date=May 8, 1981 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.2307/3504050 |jstor=3504050 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[American mink]]s (''Neogale vison''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=James W. |doi=10.2307/3536608 |title=Comparative Home Ranges and Food Habits of Bald Eagles Nesting in Four Aquatic Habitats in Western Washington |journal=Northwestern Naturalist |volume=83 |issue=3 |publisher=Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology |year=2002 |pages=101–08 |jstor=3536608}}</ref> and larger [[fisher cat]]s (''Pekania pennanti'') are known to be hunted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erb |first1=John |first2=B. |last2=Sampson |first3=P. |last3=Coy |title=Survival and causes of mortality for fisher and marten in Minnesota |journal=Minn. Dep. Nat. Resour. Summ. Wildl. Res. Findings |year=2010 |pages=24–31}}</ref> [[Fox]]es are also taken, including [[Island fox]]es ('' Urocyon littoralis ''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Claybourne M. |last1=Moore |first2=Paul W. |last2=Collins |title=''Urocyon littoralis'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=489 |date=June 23, 1995 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.2307/3504160 |jstor=3504160 |s2cid=215746001 |doi-access=free|pmc=7149463 }}</ref> [[Arctic fox]]es (''Vulpes lagopus''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alexandra M. |last1=Audet |first2=C. Brian |last2=Robbins |first3=Serge |last3=Larivière |doi=10.1644/0.713.1 |title=''Alopex lagopus'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=713 |date=December 26, 2002 |pages=1–10 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[grey fox]]es (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus'').<ref name = 'Oberholser'>{{cite book |last1=Oberholser |first1=Harry Church |title=The North American eagles and their economic relations |year=1906}}</ref> Although fox farmers claimed that bald eagle heavily prey on young and adult free-range Arctic fox, the predation events are sporadic.<ref name=bent/><ref>Anthony, R. G., Estes, J. A., Ricca, M. A., Miles, A. K., & Forsman, E. D. (2008). Bald eagles and sea otters in the Aleutian archipelago: indirect effects of trophic cascades. Ecology, 89(10), 2725-2735.</ref> In one instance, two bald Eagles fed upon a [[red fox]] (''Vulpes vulpes'') that had tried to cross a frozen [[Delaware Lake (Ohio)|Delaware Lake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://columbusaudubon.org/auto-da-gathering-of-eaglesraft/ |title=A Gathering of Eagles |website=Columbus Audubon |date=February 11, 2021}}</ref> Other medium-sized carnivorans such as [[striped skunk]]s (''Mephitis mephitis''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Julia |last1=Wade-Smith |first2=B. J. |last2=Verts |doi=10.2307/3503883 |title=''Mephitis mephitis'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=173 |date=May 25, 1982 |pages=1–7 |jstor=3503883 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[American hog-nosed skunk]]s (''Conepatus leuconotus''),<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Mammalian Species |doi=10.1644/827.1 |title=Conepatus leuconotus (Carnivora: Mephitidae) |year=2009 |last1=Dragoo |first1=Jerry W. |last2=Sheffield |first2=Steven R. |volume=827 |pages=1–8 |s2cid=86591926 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[common raccoon]]s (''Procyon lotor'')<ref name = 'Oberholser'/> are taken, as well as [[domestic cat]]s (''Felis catus'') and [[dog]]s (''canis familiaris'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Two young eagles preying on cats in Campbell River |url=https://www.timescolonist.com/local-news/two-young-eagles-preying-on-cats-in-campbell-river-4608302 |first=Sian |last=Thompson |date=April 23, 2014 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=Victoria Times Colonist |language=en}}</ref><ref name=bent/>

Other wild mammalian prey include fawns of deer such as [[white-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'') and [[Sitka deer]] (''Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis''), which weigh around {{cvt|3|kg}} can be taken alive by bald eagles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duquette |first1=Jared F. |display-authors=et al |title=Bald eagle predation of a white-tailed deer fawn |journal=Northeastern Naturalist |volume=18 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.1656/045.018.0108 |s2cid=85843273}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=Sophie L. |title=Bald Eagle Predation on Sitka Black-Tailed Deer Fawns |journal=Northwestern Naturalist |volume=97 |issue=1 |year=2016 |pages=66–69 |doi=10.1898/1051-1733-97.1.66 |s2cid=35280296}}</ref> In one instance, a bald eagle was observed carrying {{cvt|6.8|kg}} [[mule deer]] (''Odocoileus hemionus'') fawn.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wood, G. |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Additionally, [[Virginia opossum]]s (''Didelphis virginiana'') can be preyed upon. Still, predation events are rare due to their nocturnal habits.<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/shorts/FNZrexQw8v0 |title=Eagle eating live Opossum |website=[[YouTube]] |date=October 10, 2021}}</ref><ref name = 'Oberholser'/>

Together with the golden eagle, bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock, especially sheep (''Ovis aries''). There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation, some specimens weighing up to {{convert|11|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, by bald eagles. Still, they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle. Both species prefer native, wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods.<ref name="ICWDM"/> There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult, pregnant ewe (then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles), which, weighing on average over {{convert|60|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species.<ref name="McEneaney"/>

===Reptiles and other prey===
Supplemental prey is readily taken given the opportunity. In some areas, reptiles may become regular prey, especially in warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high. Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile.<ref name="Travsky"/> In coastal [[New Jersey]], 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles. The main species found were [[Sternotherus odoratus|common musk turtles]] (''Sternotherus odoratus''), [[diamondback terrapin]] (''Malaclemys terrapin'') and juvenile [[common snapping turtle]]s (''Chelydra serpentina''). In these New Jersey nests, mainly subadult and small adults were taken, ranging in carapace length from {{convert|9.2|to|17.1|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Wetlands"/> Similarly, many turtles were recorded in the diet in the [[Chesapeake Bay]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=W. S. |year=1982 |title=Turtles as a food source of nesting bald eagles in the Chesapeake Bay region |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=49–51}}</ref> In [[Texas]], [[Apalone|softshell turtle]]s are the most frequently taken prey,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mabie |first1=David W. |first2=M. Todd |last2=Merendino |first3=David H. |last3=Reid |title=Prey of nesting bald eagles in Texas |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=1995 |pages=10–14}}</ref> and a large number of [[Barbour's map turtle]]s are taken in [[Torreya State Park]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Means |first1=D. Bruce |first2=A. N. N. E. |last2=Harvey |title=Barbour's map turtle in the diet of nesting bald eagles |journal=Florida Field Naturalist |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=1999 |pages=14–16}}</ref> Other reptilian and amphibian prey includes [[southern alligator lizard]]s (''Elgaria multicarinata''),<ref name = 'Erlandson.'/> snakes such as [[garter snake]]s and [[rattlesnake]]s,<ref name="FPL"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olson |first=Storrs L. |date=October 1, 2006 |title=Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Preying on Maritime Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis pallidulus, on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia |url=http://www.canadianfieldnaturalist.ca/index.php/cfn/article/view/359 |journal=The Canadian Field-Naturalist |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=477 |doi=10.22621/cfn.v120i4.359 |issn=0008-3550 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grubb |first1=Teryl G. |title=Food habits of bald eagles breeding in the Arizona desert |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |year=1995 |pages=258–274}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'/> and [[Greater siren]] (''Siren lacertina'').<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980"/>

Invertebrates are occasionally taken. In [[Alaska]], eagles feed on [[sea urchin]]s (''Strongylocentrotus'' sp.), chitons, mussels, and crabs.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=J.M. |last1=Erlandson |first2=M.L. |last2=Moss |title=Shellfish feeders, carrion eaters, and aquatic adaptations |journal=American Antiquity |volume=66 |year=2001 |pages=413–432 |doi=10.2307/2694242 |jstor=2694242 |s2cid=83743872}}</ref> Other various mollusks such as [[land snail]]s, [[abalones]], [[bivalves]], [[Littorinidae|periwinkles]], [[blue mussels]], [[squid]]s, and [[starfish]]es are taken as well.<ref name = 'Erlandson.'/>

=== Interspecific predatory relationships ===
[[File:Birds of Prey Wisconsin 08.jpg|thumb|left|Pursuing an [[osprey]] to steal fish]]
When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing [[mammal]]s such as [[coyote]]s (''Canis latrans'') and foxes, and birds such as [[corvid]]s, [[gull]]s, vultures and other [[Bird of prey|raptors]].<ref name="Sherrod"/> Occasionally, coyotes, [[bobcat]]s (''Lynx rufus'') and [[Dog|domestic dogs]] (''Canis familiaris'') can displace eagles from carrion, usually less confident immature birds, as has been recorded in Maine.<ref name=j14/> Bald eagles are less active, bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism (although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed).<ref name='Erlandson.'/><ref name= Watson/> However, the two species are roughly equal in size, aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way. Neither species is known to be dominant, and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved.<ref name="BNA"/> Wintering bald and golden eagles in [[Utah]] both sometimes won conflicts, though in one recorded instance a single bald eagle successfully displaced two consecutive golden eagles from a kill.<ref name= Sabine>{{cite journal |last1=Sabine |first1=N. |last2=Gardner |first2=K. |year=1987 |title=Agonistic encounters between Bald Eagles and other raptors wintering in west central Utah |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=21 |pages=118–120}}</ref>

Though bald eagles face few natural threats, an unusual attacker comes in the form of the common loon (''G. immer''), which is also taken by eagles as prey. While common loons normally avoid conflict, they are highly territorial and will attack predators and competitors by stabbing at them with their knife-like bill; as the range of the bald eagle has increased following conservation efforts, these interactions have been observed on several occasions, including a fatality of a bald eagle in Maine that is presumed to have come about as a result of it attacking a nest, then having a fatal [[Penetrating trauma|puncture wound]] inflicted by one or both loon parents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Why did a loon stab a bald eagle through the heart? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/why-loon-stabbed-bald-eagle-heart/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528012828/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/why-loon-stabbed-bald-eagle-heart/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 28, 2020 |access-date=December 1, 2020 |website=National Geographic |first=Jason |last=Bittel |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle, with the bald species estimated to number at least 150,000 individuals, about twice as many as there are golden eagles estimated to live in North America.<ref name= Watson/><ref name="Bio"/> Due to this, bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources.<ref name= Watson/> Despite the potential for contention between these animals, in [[New Jersey]] during winter, a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt [[snow geese]] alongside each other without conflict. Similarly, both eagle species have been recorded, via video-monitoring, to feed on gut piles and carcasses of [[white-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'') in remote forest clearings in the eastern [[Appalachian Mountains]] without apparent conflict.<ref name= Watson/> Bald eagles are frequently mobbed by smaller raptors, due to their infrequent but unpredictable tendency to hunt other birds of prey.<ref name= Sabine/> Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites, especially in winters when fish are harder to come by. They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as [[osprey]]s, [[heron]]s and even [[otter]]s.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name=j13/> They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus''), prairie dogs from [[ferruginous hawk]]s (''Buteo regalis'') and even jackrabbits from [[golden eagle]]s.<ref name=j7/><ref name=j8/> When they approach scavengers such as dogs, gulls or vultures at carrion sites, they often attack them in an attempt to force them to disgorge their food.<ref name="FPL"/> Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed upon in the wild and are thus considered [[apex predator]]s.<ref name=r6/>

==Reproduction==
Bald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age. When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born. Bald eagles have high mate fidelity and generally [[mate for life]]. However, if one pair member dies or disappears, the survivor will choose a new mate. A pair that has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates.<ref>Jenkins, J. M., & Jackman, R. E. (1993). Mate and nest site fidelity in a resident population of Bald Eagles. Condor, 1053-1056.</ref> Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate, spectacular calls and flight displays by the males. The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free-fall, separating just before hitting the ground.<ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref name=r7/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Scharper |first1=Julie |title=Bald eagles fight, tangle and fall out of the sky |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/features/bs-ae-tangled-bald-eagles-20150127-story.html |access-date=February 14, 2021 |newspaper=Baltimore Sun |date=January 29, 2015}}</ref> Usually, a territory defended by a mature pair will be {{convert|1|to|2|km|mi|abbr=on}} of waterside habitat.<ref name="Travsky"/>

[[File:Dan Pancamo Baytown Bald Eagles Fall 2010-1.jpg|left|thumb|Mating]]
Compared to most other raptors, which mostly nest in April or May, bald eagles are early breeders: nest building or reinforcing is often by mid-February, egg laying is often late February (sometimes during deep snow in the North), and incubation is usually mid-March and early May. Eggs hatch from mid-April to early May, and the young fledge from late June to early July.<ref name="Travsky"/> The nest is the largest of any bird in North America; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as {{convert|4|m|ft|sp=us|abbr = on}} deep, {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sp=us|abbr = on}} across and weigh {{convert|1|t|ST|lk=on|sp=us}}.<ref name="hbw" /> One nest in Florida was found to be {{convert|6.1|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=on}} deep, {{convert|2.9|m|ft|sp=us}} across, and to weigh {{convert|3|ST|t|1|sp=us|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web |author=Erickson, L. |year=2007 |publisher=Journey North |url=http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/eagle/NestAbout1.html |title=Bald Eagle, About Bald Eagle Nests |access-date=August 27, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830211627/http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/eagle/NestAbout1.html |archive-date=August 30, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This nest is on record as the largest tree nest ever recorded for any animal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trails.com/arts/amazing-bird-records.aspx |title=Amazing Bird Records |website=Trails.com |date=July 27, 2010 |access-date=August 22, 2012}}</ref> Usually nests are used for under five years, as they either collapse in storms or break the branches supporting them by their sheer weight. However, one nest in the [[Midwest]] was occupied continuously for at least 34 years.<ref name="FPL"/> The nest is built of branches, usually in large trees found near water. When breeding where there are no trees, the bald eagle will nest on the ground, as has been recorded largely in areas largely isolated from terrestrial predators, such as [[Amchitka Island]] in Alaska.<ref name="Sherrod"/>

[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus MWNH 0839.JPG|thumb|Egg, Collection at [[Museum Wiesbaden]] in Germany]]
In [[Sonora]], Mexico, eagles have been observed nesting on top of [[Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum|hecho catcuses]] (''Pachycereus pectin-aboriginum'').<ref name=j9/> Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California, [[Kansas]], [[Nevada]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Utah]], but currently are only verified to occur only in [[Alaska]] and [[Arizona]].<ref name="Travsky"/> The eggs average about {{convert|73|mm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}} long, ranging from {{convert|58|to|85|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and have a breadth of {{convert|54|mm|in|sp=us|abbr = on}}, ranging from {{convert|47|to|63|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Terres"/><ref name="Stalmaster"/> Eggs in Alaska averaged {{convert|130|g|oz|abbr=on}} in mass, while in [[Saskatchewan]] they averaged {{convert|114.4|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hensel, R. J 1964"/><ref name="Bortolotti"/> As with their ultimate body size, egg size tends to increase with distance from the equator.<ref name="Stalmaster"/> Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, two being typical. Rarely, four eggs have been found in nests, but these may be exceptional cases of [[Polygyny in animals|polygyny]].<ref name=bent/> Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs.<ref name=j10/> It is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledgling stage. The oldest chick often bears the advantage of a larger size and louder voice, which tends to draw the parents' attention towards it.<ref name="Travsky"/> Occasionally, as is recorded in many large raptorial birds, the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling(s), especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different.<ref name="Travsky"/> However, nearly half of the known bald eagles produce two fledglings (more rarely three), unlike in some other "eagle" species such as some in the genus ''Aquila'', in which a second fledgling is typically observed in less than 20% of nests, despite two eggs typically being laid.<ref name="Brown"/> Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs, but the female does most of the sitting. The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage. For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period, at least one adult is at the nest almost 100% of the time. After five to six weeks, the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably (with the parents often perching in trees nearby).<ref name="Travsky"/>

[[File:Back to the Six Mile Lake eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)."feed me mom". (19159890706).jpg|thumb|left|Adult and chick]]
[[File:Bald Eagle Chick, NPSPhoto, Lori Oberhofner (9101506540).jpg|thumb|Chick at [[Everglades National Park]]]]
A young eaglet can gain up to {{convert|170|g|oz|abbr=on}} a day, the fastest growth rate of any North American bird.<ref name="FPL"/> The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks, play tug of war with each other, practice holding things in their talons, and stretch and flap their wings. By eight weeks, the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings, lift their feet off the nest platform, and rise in the air.<ref name="FPL"/> The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age, though will remain close to the nest and be attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks. Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge. Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development.<ref name="Bortolotti"/> For the next four years, immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce.<ref name="Drexel"/>

Male eagles have been observed killing and cannibalizing their chicks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Markham |first1=A. C. |last2=Watts |first2=B. D. |title=Documentation of Infanticide and Cannibalism in Bald Eagles |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |date=2007 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=41–44 |doi=10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[41:DOIACI]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In 2024 at the National Conservation Training Center in West Virginia, the NCTC's Eagle Cam recorded two bald eagle chicks being attacked and devoured by their father as soon as the mother departed from the nest. The NCTC noted in its statement on the incident that such behavior "has been observed in other nests and is not uncommon in birds of prey."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kirk |first1=Sam |title=Second chick at NCTC eagle nest in West Virginia killed by father |url=https://fox59.com/news/national-world/second-chick-at-nctc-eagle-nest-in-west-virginia-killed-by-father |agency=Fox 59 |date=April 14, 2024}}</ref>

On rare occasions, bald eagles have been recorded to adopt other raptor fledglings into their nests, as seen in 2017 by a pair of eagles in Shoal Harbor Migratory Bird Sanctuary near Sidney, British Columbia. The pair of eagles in question are believed to have carried a juvenile [[red-tailed hawk]] back to their nest, presumably as prey, whereupon the chick was accepted into the family by both the parents and the eagles' three nestlings.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40224776 |title=Bald eagle adopts 'mortal enemy' baby hawk |date=June 9, 2017 |access-date=April 4, 2018 |newspaper=BBC News}}</ref> The hawk, nicknamed "Spunky" by biologists monitoring the nest, fledged successfully.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/red-tailed-hawk-adopted-by-bald-eagles-video-spd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224094815/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/red-tailed-hawk-adopted-by-bald-eagles-video-spd |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |title=Why This Young Hawk Thinks It's an Eagle |date=July 25, 2017 |website=nationalgeographic.com |access-date=April 4, 2018}}</ref>

==Longevity and mortality==
[[File:Fledging Bald Eagle.jpg|thumb|Newly fledged juvenile]]
The average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jun/14/bald-eagle-believed-oldest-banded-of-its-species-f/ |title=Bald eagle believed oldest banded of its species found dead |publisher=Washington Times (Associated Press) |date=June 14, 2015}}</ref> In captivity, they often live somewhat longer. In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years.<ref>{{cite book |title=Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Revised Land and Resource Management Plan for National Forests in Florida |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |orig-date=1999 |date=2023 |page=12 |author=[[United States Forest Service]]}}</ref> As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey.<ref name=sop>{{cite web |url=http://www.bsc-eoc.org/regional/oneaglefacts.html |title=Bald Eagle Fact Sheet |publisher=Southern Ontario Bald Eagle Monitoring Project |access-date=June 30, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511232457/http://www.bsc-eoc.org/regional/oneaglefacts.html |archive-date=May 11, 2008}}</ref> As they are no longer heavily persecuted, adult mortality is quite low. In one study of Florida eagles, adult bald eagles reportedly had 100% annual survival rate.<ref name= Watson/> In [[Prince William Sound]] in [[Alaska]], adults had an annual survival rate of 88% even after the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]] adversely affected eagles in the area.<ref name=j16/> Of 1,428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984, 329 (23%) eagles died from trauma, primarily impact with wires and vehicles; 309 (22%) died from gunshot; 158 (11%) died from poisoning; 130 (9%) died from electrocution; 68 (5%) died from trapping; 110 (8%) from emaciation; and 31 (2%) from disease; cause of death was undetermined in 293 (20%) of cases.<ref name="Buehler"/> In this study, 68% of mortality was human-caused.<ref name="Buehler" /> Today, eagle-shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species' protected status.<ref name=b6/> A [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] study of 1,490 bald eagle deaths from 1986 through 2017 in [[Michigan]] found that 532 (36%) died due to being struck by cars while scavenging [[roadkill]] and 176 (12%) died due to [[lead poisoning]] from ingesting fragments of lead ammo and fishing gear present in [[carrion]], with the proportion of both causes of death increasing significantly towards the end of the study period.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Matheny |first1=Keith |title=What kills bald eagles in Michigan? Most comprehensive study ever has the answers |url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/08/07/leading-killer-bald-eagles-michigan-isnt-what-you-think/5572129002/ |access-date=July 23, 2024 |work=Detroit Free Press |date=August 7, 2020}}</ref><ref name=simon>{{Cite journal |last1=Simon |first1=Kendall L. |last2=Best |first2=David A. |last3=Sikarskie |first3=James G. |last4=Pittman |first4=H. Tyler |last5=Bowerman |first5=William W. |last6=Cooley |first6=Thomas M. |last7=Stolz |first7=Scott |date=April 2020 |title=Sources of Mortality in Bald Eagles in Michigan, 1986–2017 |url=https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.21822 |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |language=en |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=553–561 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.21822 |bibcode=2020JWMan..84..553S |issn=0022-541X |access-date=July 23, 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Most non-human-related mortality involves nestlings or eggs. Around 50% of eagles survive their first year.<ref name="Drexel"/> However, in the Chesapeake Bay area, 100% of 39 radio-tagged nestlings survived to their first year.<ref name=j24/> Nestling or egg fatalities may be due to nest collapses, starvation, sibling aggression or inclement weather. Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation. Nest predators include large [[gull]]s, [[corvid]]s (including ravens, [[Corvus (genus)|crows]] and [[magpie]]s), [[wolverine]]s (''Gulo gulo''), [[Fisher (animal)|fishers]] (''Pekania pennanti''), [[red-tailed hawk]]s, owls, other [[eagle]]s, bobcats, [[American black bear]]s (''Ursus americanus'') and raccoons.<ref name="Hensel, R. J 1964"/><ref name=j17/><ref name=j18a/><ref name=j19/><ref name=j20/><ref name=j21/><ref name=j22/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lovallo |first1=M. J. |year=2008 |title=Status and management of fisher (''Martes pennanti'') in Pennsylvania |journal=Management Plan Developed by Bureau of Wildlife Management |publisher=Pennsylvania Game Commission |location=Harrisburg, USA}}</ref> If food access is low, parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage, thus resulting in less protection.<ref name="Brown"/> Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree-climbers, but [[Arctic fox]]es (''Vulpes lagopus'') occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island.<ref name="Sherrod"/> The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears, having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings.<ref name="Redoubt">{{YouTube|OTr0qkC5sZw|Bald Eagle attacks Black bear again at Redoubt Bay}}</ref>

==Relationship with humans==

===Population decline and recovery===
[[File:Trash eagle.jpg|thumb|Inside a waste collection and transfer facility, in [[Homer, Alaska]], United States]]
Once a common sight in much of the continent, the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide [[DDT]].<ref name=b5/> Bald eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to [[biomagnification]]. DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with their [[calcium]] metabolism, making them either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs; many of their eggs were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible for them to hatch.<ref name="Bull87"/> It is estimated that in the early 18th century the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000,<ref name=r16/> but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 [[Contiguous United States|contiguous states]] of the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/support/adopt/adopt-bald-eagle |title=Adopt a Bald Eagle |publisher=Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute |access-date=August 4, 2018 |date=May 26, 2016 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209052703/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/support/adopt/adopt-bald-eagle |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnr.sc.gov/wildlife/baldeagle/pastsurveys.html |title=South Carolina's Bald Eagles – Past Surveys |publisher=South Carolina Department of Natural Resources |date=2015 |access-date=August 4, 2018}}</ref>
Other factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, as well as both legal and illegal shooting. In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the territory of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70,000 bald eagles had been shot. Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long-held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons, yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation (lamb predation is rare, human predation is thought to be non-existent).<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62 |title=American Bald Eagle Is Near Extinction |magazine=Popular Science Monthly |date=March 1930 |page=62}}</ref> Illegal shooting was described as "the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Bald Eagle's Status Listed for 48 States |journal=Endangered Species Technical Bulletin |date=March 1978 |volume=III |issue=3 |page=9}}</ref> Leading causes of death in bald eagles include lead pollution, poisoning, collision with motor vehicles, and power-line electrocution.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264861144 |title=Causes of Mortality in Eagles Submitted to The National Wildlife Health Center 1975–2013 |last1=Russell |first1=Robin E. |last2=Franson |first2=J. Christian |date=December 2014 |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=38 |number=4 |pages=697–704 |doi=10.1002/wsb.469 |bibcode=2014WSBu...38..697R}}</ref> A study published in 2022 in the journal Science found that more than half of adult eagles across 38 US states suffered from lead poisoning.<ref name="lead1"/> The primary cause is when eagles scavenge carcasses of animals shot by hunters.<ref name="lead1"/> These are often tainted with lead shotgun pellets, rifle rounds, or fishing tackle.<ref name="lead1">{{cite web |title=Most U.S. eagles suffer from lead poisoning, study suggests |first=Douglas |last=Main |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bald-eagles-golden-eagles-lead-poisoning-ammunition |date=February 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223131707/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/bald-eagles-golden-eagles-lead-poisoning-ammunition |archive-date=February 23, 2023}}</ref><ref name="simon" />

The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918|1918 Migratory Bird Treaty]], later extended to all of North America. The [[Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act]], approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940, protected the bald eagle and the [[golden eagle]], prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds as well as collecting their eggs.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act |url=https://www.fws.gov/law/bald-and-golden-eagle-protection-act#:~:text=The%20Bald%20and%20Golden%20Eagle,),%20nests,%20or%20eggs. |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=www.fws.gov |publisher=[[U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]] |language=en}}</ref> The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/history/protections.html |title=Federal Laws that Protect Bald and Golden Eagles |publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-date=June 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608055334/https://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/history/protections.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/BaldEagleDelisting.htm |title=Bald Eagle Removed from Endangered Species List |publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-date=April 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420015703/https://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/BaldEagleDelisting.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> Perhaps most significant in the species' recovery, in 1972, DDT was banned from usage in the United States due to the fact that it inhibited the reproduction of many birds.<ref name=r13/> DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.<ref name=r14/>
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus 38319.JPG|thumb|upright|First-year juvenile bald eagle at [[Anacortes]], Washington, United States]]

With regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded. The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water. In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 individuals, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992;<ref name=hbw/> the U.S. state with the largest resident population is [[Alaska]], with about 40,000–50,000, with the next highest population the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[British Columbia]] with 20,000–30,000 in 1992.<ref name=hbw/> Obtaining a precise count of the bald eagle population is extremely difficult. The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006, when 9789 breeding pairs were reported.<ref name="USFWS2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/population/chtofprs.html |title=Bald Eagle Breeding Pairs 1963 to 2006 |date=March 18, 2013 |access-date=December 10, 2013 |publisher=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service}}</ref> For some time, the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida, where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use. Today, the [[Contiguous United States|contiguous state]] with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is [[Minnesota]] with an estimated 1,312 pairs, surpassing Florida's most recent count of 1,166 pairs. 23, or nearly half, of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles.<ref name="Bio"/> In Washington State, there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980.  That number increased by about 30 per year, so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests. 2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nests. Further population increases in Washington may be limited by the availability of late winter food, particularly salmon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wdfw.wa.gov/conservation/endangered/species/bald_eagle.pdf |title=Threatened and Endangered Wildlife in Washington, 2012 Annual Report |publisher=Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife |access-date=March 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320235925/http://wdfw.wa.gov/conservation/endangered/species/bald_eagle.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995, by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]], when it was reclassified from "endangered" to "threatened". On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife". It was de-listed on June 28, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Bald Eagle Decline, Protection and Recovery |access-date=May 30, 2020 |url=https://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/History/index.html |archive-date=June 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630171147/https://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/history/index.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> It has also been assigned a risk level of [[least concern]] category on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=iucn/> In the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]] of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in [[Prince William Sound]], though the local population returned to its pre-spill level by 1995.<ref name= Cornell/> In some areas, the increase in eagles has led to decreases in other bird populations<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Parrish |first1=Julia K. |author-link=Julia Parrish |last2=Marvier |first2=Michelle |last3=Paine |first3=Robert T. |title=Direct and Indirect Effects: Interactions Between Bald Eagles and Common Murres |author-link3=Robert T. Paine (zoologist) |date=2001 |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[1858:DAIEIB]2.0.CO;2 |journal=Ecological Applications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=1858–1869 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[1858:DAIEIB]2.0.CO;2 |issn=1051-0761|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the eagles may be considered a pest.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Wyatt |title=When the National Bird Is a Burden |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/19/magazine/bald-eagle-national-burden.html?_r=0 |access-date=January 20, 2017 |work=[[The New York Times Magazine]] |date=January 19, 2017}}</ref>

===Killing permits===
In December 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed extending the permits issued to wind generation companies to allow them to kill up to 4,200 bald eagles per year without facing a penalty, four times the previous number. The permits would last 30 years, six times the previous 5-year term.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wind-energy-permits-raise-kill-limit-bald-eagles/story?id=38881089 |title=New Wind Energy Permits Would Raise Kill Limit of Bald Eagles But Still Boost Conservation, Officials Say |website=ABC News |date=May 4, 2016 |access-date=March 3, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Daly |first=Matthew |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/9a2796aa1e7542348629ea4108fe7695/apnewsbreak-new-rule-would-permit-thousands-eagle-deaths |title=New federal rule would permit thousands of eagle deaths |website=Bigstory.ap.org |date=April 18, 2013 |access-date=March 3, 2017}}</ref>

===In captivity===
[[File:Lady Baltimore, in her habitat.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lady Baltimore (bald eagle)|Lady Baltimore]], a bald eagle in [[Alaska]] who survived a poaching attempt, in her [[Juneau Raptor Center]] [[Mews (falconry)|mews]], on August 15, 2015]]
[[License|Permits]] are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States. Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles that they show are permanently injured individuals that cannot be released to the wild. The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Migratory Bird Permits; Possession and Educational Use |publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service |date=September 21, 2010 |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2010/09/21/2010-23342/migratory-bird-permits-possession-and-educational-use |access-date=May 30, 2020}}</ref> The bald eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions.<ref name=j11/>

In Canada<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/falconry#section-1 |date=May 26, 2016 |title=Birds of prey used for falconry |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry}}</ref> and in England<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thefalconrycentre.co.uk/bird-info/birds-gallery/bald-eagle/ |date=June 26, 2018 |title=Courses |publisher=Thirsk Bird of Prey Centre |access-date=October 23, 2018 |archive-date=April 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428174641/https://www.thefalconrycentre.co.uk/bird-info/birds-gallery/bald-eagle/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> a license is required to keep bald eagles for [[falconry]].<ref name=r12/> Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States, but a license may be issued in some jurisdictions to allow use of such eagles in birds-of-prey flight shows.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/animalia/wp/2018/01/12/meet-challenger-a-bald-eagle-whose-soaring-skills-are-in-high-demand/ |date=January 12, 2018 |title=Meet Challenger, a bald eagle whose soaring skills are in high demand |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eagles.org/what-we-do/educate/shows-tours-exhibits/ |date=January 12, 2018 |title='Wings of America' Birds of Prey Show |publisher=American Eagle Foundation}}</ref>

==Cultural significance==
The bald eagle is important in various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures and, as the [[national symbol]] of the United States, is prominent in seals and logos, coinage, postage stamps, and other items relating to the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]].

===Role in Native American culture===
The bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the [[golden eagle]], are central to many religious and [[Native American mythology|spiritual]] customs among [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures.<ref name="Pequot"/> Many [[pow wow]] dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well. Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies, particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans, bustles and head dresses. In the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] tradition an eagle feather is represented to be a protector, along with the feather Navajo medicine men use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle-myths.html |title=Eagle Myths and Legends – American Bald Eagle Information |access-date=September 2, 2015 |archive-date=May 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503141927/https://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle-myths.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Lakota people|Lakota]], for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.<ref name="Melmer"/> The [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] consider eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young.<ref name="northeast">{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/northeast/newsroom/eagle.html |title=Bald Eagle Population Recovery and the Endangered Species Act |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=November 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422103354/http://www.fws.gov/northeast/newsroom/eagle.html |archive-date=April 22, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Choctaw]] consider the bald eagle, who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun, as a symbol of peace.<ref name=greg_obrien_eagle/>

[[File:National eagle repository 017.JPG|right|thumb|Staff at the [[National Eagle Repository]] processing a bald eagle]]
During the [[Sun Dance]], which is practiced by many [[Plains Indian]] tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways. The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance. Also during the dance, a [[medicine man]] may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed. The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.<ref name=r11/>

Current [[eagle feather law]] stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.<ref name=r9/><ref name=r10/>

The [[National Eagle Repository]], a division of the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|FWS]], exists as a means to receive, process, and store bald and [[golden eagle]]s which are found dead and to distribute the eagles, their parts and feathers to [[List of federally recognized tribes|federally recognized]] Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/le/national-eagle-repository.html |title=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Office of Law Enforcement / Native Americans and Alaskan Natives – National Eagle Repository |access-date=March 10, 2014}}</ref>

===National symbol of the United States===
{{Further|Great Seal of the United States#Obverse}}
[[File:Seal of the President of the United States.svg|thumb|upright|[[Seal of the president of the United States]]]]
The bald eagle is the national symbol of the United States.<ref name=j23/> It was adopted as a national emblem in 1782, but not designated the "national bird" until an [[act of Congress]] in December 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last=Koch |first=Alexandra |title=It's official: Biden signs new law, designates bald eagle as 'national bird' |publisher=FOX 13 Seattle |date=December 25, 2024 |url=https://www.fox13seattle.com/news/its-official-biden-signs-new-law-designates-bald-eagle-national-bird |access-date=December 25, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Halpert |first=Madeline |title=Bald eagle officially declared US national bird after 250 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c23vzkdek4po |access-date=December 26, 2024 |website=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the [[Roman Republic]], in which eagle imagery (usually involving the [[golden eagle]]) was prominent. On June 20, 1782, the [[Continental Congress]] adopted the design for the [[Great Seal of the United States]], depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 [[arrow]]s and an [[olive branch]] with thirteen leaves with its talons.<ref name="seal"/><ref name="seal2"/><ref name="seal3"/>

The bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government, including the [[Seal of the president of the United States|presidential seal]], the [[Flag of the President of the United States|presidential flag]], and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies. Between 1916 and 1945, the presidential flag (but not the seal) showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the [[urban legend]] that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.snopes.com/history/american/turnhead.htm |title=A Turn of the Head |access-date=August 19, 2007 |author1=Mikkelson, Barbara |author2=Mikkelson, David P |date=November 5, 2001 |name-list-style=amp |publisher=snopes.com}}</ref>

Contrary to popular legend, there is no evidence that [[Benjamin Franklin]] ever publicly supported the [[wild turkey]] (''Meleagris gallopavo''), rather than the bald eagle, as a symbol of the United States. However, in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris, criticizing the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle's behavior. In the letter Franklin states:<ref name= Cornell1>{{cite web |url=http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/bald_eagle/lifehistory |title=Bald Eagle, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology |website=AllAboutBirds.org |access-date=August 22, 2012}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|For my own part. I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen the representative of our country. He is a bird of bad moral character. He does not get his living honestly&nbsp;... besides he is a rank coward: The little [[Eastern kingbird|king bird]] not bigger than a sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the district.}}

Franklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it, with its hereditary membership, as a [[order (honour)|noble order]] unwelcome in the newly independent Republic, contrary to the ideals of [[Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus]], for whom the Society was named.  His reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=MMM.Turkey |title=American Heraldry Society &#124; MMM / The Arms of the United States: Benjamin Franklin and the Turkey |publisher=Americanheraldry.org |date=May 18, 2007 |access-date=March 20, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427082418/http://www.americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=MMM.Turkey |archive-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref>

===Popular culture===
Largely because of its role as a symbol of the United States, but also because of its being a large predator, the bald eagle has many representations in popular culture. In film and television depictions the call of the [[red-tailed hawk]], which is much louder and more powerful, is often substituted for bald eagles.<ref>Jessica Robinson, "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=156187375 Bald Eagle: A Mighty Symbol, With A Not-So-Mighty Voice]"; [[NPR]], July 2, 2012; accessed 2019.08.23.</ref>
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Birds|North America}}
* [[American bison]]
* [[Besnard Lake]]
* [[Eagle lady]]
* [[Coat of arms of the Philippines]]
* [[Old Abe]]
* [[List of national birds]]

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<ref name=r4>{{cite web |url=http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2010/04/13/news/doc4bc3e624af48b301512385.txt |title=Bald eagles make nest in Heinz Wildlife Refuge |year=2010 |work=Delaware Daily Times website |publisher=Delaware Daily Times |access-date=February 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905003137/http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2010/04/13/news/doc4bc3e624af48b301512385.txt |archive-date=September 5, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=r5>{{cite web |last=Carlson |first=Jen |url=http://gothamist.com/2010/02/05/bald_eagle_1.php |title=Bald Eagle Spotted Near Fairway |publisher=Gothamist |date=February 5, 2010 |access-date=March 20, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311002613/http://gothamist.com/2010/02/05/bald_eagle_1.php |archive-date=March 11, 2010}}</ref>

<ref name=r6>{{cite web |url=http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-bald_eagle.html |title=San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Bald Eagle |publisher=Sandiegozoo.org |access-date=March 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201155624/http://sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-bald_eagle.html |archive-date=February 1, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=r7>{{cite web |url=http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153-10370_12145_12202-32581--,00.html |publisher=Michigan Department of Natural Resources |title=Bald Eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') |access-date=April 24, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310155729/http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0%2C1607%2C7-153-10370_12145_12202-32581--%2C00.html |archive-date=March 10, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=r8>{{cite web |url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/managed/bald-eagle/information/biology/ |title=Bald Eagle: Life History and Habitat |publisher=myfwc.com |date=April 28, 2009 |access-date=October 13, 2012}}</ref>

<ref name=r9>{{cite journal |last=DeMeo |first=Antonia M. |title=Access to Eagles and Eagle Parts: Environmental Protection v. Native American Free Exercise of Religion |journal=Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=771–813 |year=1995 |url=http://www.animallaw.info/articles/ar22hstclq771.htm |access-date=August 22, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928020537/http://www.animallaw.info/articles/ar22hstclq771.htm |archive-date=September 28, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=r10>{{cite news |last=Boradiansky |first=Tina S. |title=Conflicting Values: The Religious Killing of Federally Protected Wildlife |publisher=University of New Mexico School of Law |year=1990 |url=http://www.animallaw.info/articles/arus30nrj709.htm |access-date=August 23, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807070057/http://www.animallaw.info/articles/arus30nrj709.htm |archive-date=August 7, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=r11>{{cite news |author=Lawrence, Elizabeth Atwood |title=The Symbolic Role of Animals in the Plains Indian Sun Dance |publisher=University of Washington Press |url=http://www.psyeta.org/sa/sa1.1/lawrence.html |access-date=August 23, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716065757/http://www.psyeta.org/sa/sa1.1/lawrence.html |archive-date=July 16, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=r12>{{cite web |title=Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1997 |publisher=Ministry of Attorney General |url=http://www.search.e-laws.gov.on.ca/en/isysquery/ca733c6b-d473-44df-952a-203eb9829bcd/4/frame/?search=browseStatutes&context= |access-date=November 7, 2007}}</ref>

<ref name=r13>{{cite news |author=EPA press release |title=DDT Ban Takes Effect |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=December 31, 1972 |url=http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm |access-date=August 22, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705201903/http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=r14>{{cite news |author=Barrera, Jorge |title=Agent Orange has left deadly legacy Fight continues to ban pesticides and herbicides across Canada |date=July 4, 2005 |url=http://www.nben.ca/environews/media/mediaarchives/05/july/legacy.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124123943/http://www.nben.ca/environews/media/mediaarchives/05/july/legacy.htm |archive-date=January 24, 2008 |access-date=August 22, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=r16>{{cite web |title=Bald Eagle Facts and Information |publisher=[[American eagle foundation]] |url=http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html |access-date=January 3, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206030939/http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html |archive-date=December 6, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=r17>{{cite web |url=http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html |title=Bald Eagle Facts and Information |publisher=Eagles.org |date=June 28, 2007 |access-date=March 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730055210/http://www.eagles.org/moreabout.html |archive-date=July 30, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="sciencedaily">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081003081635.htm |title=Decline In Alaskan Sea Otters Affects Bald Eagles' Diet |website=Science Daily |access-date=January 3, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="seal">{{cite web |url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=5 |title=Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States (1782) |access-date=August 19, 2007 |publisher=National Archives}}</ref>

<ref name="seal2">{{Cite web |title=Official 1782 Description of America's Great Seal |url=http://www.greatseal.com/symbols/blazon.html |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=www.greatseal.com}}</ref>

<ref name="seal3">{{Cite web |title=American Eagle on Great Seal of the United States |url=http://www.greatseal.com/symbols/eagle.html |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=www.greatseal.com}}</ref>

<ref name="Sherrod">{{cite journal |author=Sherrod, S. K. |author2=White, C. M. |author3=Williamson, F. S. L. |year=1976 |title=Biology of the Bald Eagle on Amchitka Island, Alaska |journal=Living Bird |volume=15 |pages=145–82}}</ref>

<ref name="sibley">[[David Allen Sibley|Sibley, D.]] (2000). ''[[The Sibley Guide to Birds]]''. [[National Audubon Society]] {{ISBN|0-679-45122-6}} p. 127</ref>

<ref name=Stalmaster1>{{cite journal |last1=Stalmaster |first1=M. V. |first2=J. A. |last2=Gessaman |year=1984 |title=Ecological energetics and foraging behavior of overwintering Bald Eagles |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=407–28 |jstor=1942594 |doi=10.2307/1942594 |bibcode=1984EcoM...54..407S}}</ref>

<ref name="Suring">{{cite web |url=http://raptors.hancockwildlife.org/BEIA/PAGES/Section-14.pdf |title=Habitat Relationships of Bald Eagles in Alaska |author=Suring, L. |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=January 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605135135/http://raptors.hancockwildlife.org/BEIA/PAGES/Section-14.pdf |archive-date=June 5, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Swenson, J. E. 1986">{{cite journal |author=Swenson, J. E. |author2=Alt, K. L. |author3=Eng, R. L. |year=1986 |title=Ecology of Bald Eagles in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem |journal=Wildlife Monographs |volume=95 |issue=95 |jstor=3830668 |pages=3–46}}</ref>

<ref name="Terres">{{cite book |last=Terres |first=John K. |author-link=John Kenneth Terres |title=The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds |publisher=Knopf |year=1980 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyen00terr/page/477 477, 644–46] |isbn=978-0-394-46651-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyen00terr/page/477}}</ref>

<ref name="Todd">{{cite journal |author=Todd, C. S. |author2=Young, L. S. |author3=Owen, R. B. |author4=Gramlich, F. J. |year=1982 |title=Food habits of Bald Eagles in Maine |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=636–45 |doi=10.2307/3808554 |jstor=3808554}}</ref>

<ref name="Travsky">{{cite web |url=http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/wy/wildlife/animal-assessmnts.Par.41209.File.dat/BaldEagle.pdf |title=Species Assessment for Bald Eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') in Wyoming |author1=Travsky, A. |author2=Beauvais, G. |name-list-style=amp |publisher=United States Department of the Interior- Bureau of Land Management |access-date=September 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602145706/https://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/wy/wildlife/animal-assessmnts.Par.41209.File.dat/BaldEagle.pdf |archive-date=June 2, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name= Watson>{{cite book |first=Jeff |last=Watson |title=The Golden Eagle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aj5MNvCkun0C |access-date=August 22, 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4081-1420-9}}</ref>

<ref name="Watson2">{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/contaminants/fieldstudies/BaldEagle/LCR-BaldEagleForagingEcology.PDF |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/contaminants/fieldstudies/BaldEagle/LCR-BaldEagleForagingEcology.PDF |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=Foraging Ecology of Bald Eagles in the Columbia River Estuary |author=Waston, J. |author2=Garrett, M. |author3=Anthony, R. |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Oregon State University |access-date=January 3, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Wetlands">{{cite web |url=http://wetlandsinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Rogers-Poster-final-pdf.pdf |title=Predation on Northern Diamondback Terrapins (''Malaclemys terrapin terrapin'') by Bald Eagles (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') along the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay Coasts of New Jersey |publisher=The Wetlands Institute |access-date=January 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006101102/http://wetlandsinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Rogers-Poster-final-pdf.pdf |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood">{{cite journal |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/53366 |title=Bald Eagles Prey on Sandhill Cranes in Florida |author=Wood, P. |author2=Nesbitt, S. |author3=Steffer, A. |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=27 |issue=3 |year=1993 |pages=164–65}}</ref>

<ref name=j1>{{cite journal |author=Schempf, P. R |year=1997 |title=Bald eagle longevity record from Southeastern Alaska |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=150–51 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/52140}}</ref>

<ref name=j2>{{cite journal |last=Wink |first=M |title=A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus ''Haliaeetus'') based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome ''b'' gene |journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |volume=24 |issue=7–8 |pages=783–91 |year=1996 |url=http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/1996/20_1996.pdf |access-date=November 7, 2008 |doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(97)81217-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029175818/http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/1996/20_1996.pdf |archive-date=October 29, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=j3>{{cite journal |author=Andrew, J. M. |author2=Mosher, J. A. |year=1982 |title=Bald Eagle nest site selection and nesting habitat in Maryland |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=46 |pages=382–90 |doi=10.2307/3808650 |issue=2 |jstor=3808650}}</ref>

<ref name=j4>{{cite journal |author=Wood, P. B. |author2=Edwards, T. C. |author3=Collopy, M. W. |year=1989 |title=Characteristics of Bald Eagle nesting habitat in Florida |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=53 |pages=441–449 |doi=10.2307/3801148 |issue=2 |jstor=3801148}}</ref>

<ref name=j5>{{cite journal |last=Broley |first=C. L. |year=1947 |title=Migration and nesting of Florida bald eagles |journal=Wilson Bulletin |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |jstor=4157540 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/126731}}</ref>

<!--
<ref name=j6>{{cite journal |author=Vlietstra, L. S. |author2=Paruk, J. A. |year=1997 |title=Predation attempts on incubating Common Loons, ''Gavia immer'', and the significance of shoreline nesting |journal=Canadian Field-Naturalist |volume=111 |pages=654–55}}</ref>
-->

<ref name=j7>{{cite journal |last=Jorde |first=D.G. |title=Kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles wintering in South-Central Nebraska |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=183–88 |year=1998 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/51405}}</ref>

<ref name=j8>{{cite journal |title=The Effect of Kleptoparasitic Bald Eagles and Gyrfalcons on the Kill Rate of Peregrine Falcons Hunting Dunlins Wintering in British Columbia |author=Dekker, Dick |author2=Out, Marinde |author3=Tabak, Miechel |author4=Ydenberg, Ronald |journal=Condor |volume=114 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=290–294 |jstor=10.1525/cond.2012.110110 |doi=10.1525/cond.2012.110110 |s2cid=12386389 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=j9>{{cite journal |author=Brown, B. T. |author2=Warren, P. L. |author3=Anderson, L. S. |year=1987 |title=First Bald Eagle nesting record from Sonora, Mexico |journal=Wilson Bulletin |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/130508 |volume=99 |pages=279–80}}</ref>

<ref name=j10>{{cite journal |author=Gilbert, S. |author2=Tomassoni, P. |author3=Kramer, P. A. |year=1981 |title=History of captive management and breeding of Bald Eagles |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=21 |pages=101–09 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1981.tb01959.x}}</ref>

<ref name=j11>{{cite journal |last=Maestrelli |first=John R. |title=Breeding Bald Eagles in Captivity |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |volume=87 |issue=I |pages=45–53 |date=March 1975 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/129144}}</ref>

<!--<ref name=j12>{{cite journal |author=Retfalvi, L. |year=1970 |title=Food of nesting Bald Eagles on San Juan Island, Washington |journal=Condor |volume=72 |pages=358–61 |doi=10.2307/1366014 |issue=3 |jstor=1366014}}</ref>-->

<ref name=j13>{{cite journal |author=Watt, J. |author2=Krausse, B. |author3=Tinker, T. M. |year=1995 |title=Bald Eagle kleptoparasitizing sea otters at Amchitka Island, Alaska |journal=Condor |volume=87 |pages=588–90 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/105021 |doi=10.2307/1369047 |issue=2 |jstor=1369047|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<ref name=j14>{{cite journal |author=McCollough, M. A. |author2=Todd, C. S. |author3=Owen R. B. Jr. |year=1994 |title=Supplemental feeding program for wintering Bald Eagles in Maine |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=147–54 |jstor=3783240 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(96)83230-7}}</ref>

<ref name=j15>{{cite journal |last1=Stalmaster |first1=M. V. |first2=R. G. |last2=Plettner |year=1992 |title=Diets and foraging effectiveness of Bald Eagles during extreme winter weather in Nebraska |journal=[[Journal of Wildlife Management]] |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=355–67 |jstor=3808835 |doi=10.2307/3808835}}</ref>

<ref name=j16>{{cite journal |author=Bowman, T. D. |author2=Schempf, P. F. |author3=Bernatowicz, J. A. |jstor=3808945 |year=1995 |title=Bald Eagle survival and populations dynamics in Alaska after the Exxon Valdez oil spill |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=59 |pages=317–24 |doi=10.2307/3808945 |issue=2 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1235185}}</ref>

<ref name=j17>{{cite journal |author=Sprunt, A. |author2=Ligas, F. J. |year=1964 |title=Excerpts from convention addresses on the 1963 Bald Eagle report |journal=Audubon |volume=66 |pages=45–47}}</ref>

<ref name=j18a>{{cite journal |author=Mckelvey, R. W. |author2=Smith, D. W. |year=1979 |title=A black bear in a Bald Eagle nest |journal=Murrelet |volume=60 |page=106}}</ref>

<ref name=j19>{{cite book |last1=Nash |first1=C. |first2=M. |last2=Pruett-Jones |first3=G. T. |last3=Allen |year=1980 |chapter=The San Juan Islands Bald Eagle nesting survey |pages=105–15 |title=Proceedings of Washington Bald Eagle symposium |editor1-last=Knight |editor1-first=R. L. |editor2-first=G. T. |editor2-last=Allen |editor3-first=M. V. |editor3-last=Stalmaster |editor4-first=C. W. |editor4-last=Servheen |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |location=Seattle, WA}}</ref>

<ref name=j20>{{Cite book |last1=Gerrard |first1=Jonathan M. |url=http://archive.org/details/baldeaglehauntsh00gerr |title=The Bald Eagle : Haunts and Habits of a Wilderness Monarch |last2=Bortolotti |first2=Gary R. |date=1988 |place=Washington |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn=978-0-87474-451-4}}</ref>

<ref name=j21>{{cite journal |last1=Mabie |first1=D. W. |first2=M. T. |last2=Todd |first3=D. H. |last3=Reid |year=1994 |title=Dispersal of Bald Eagles fledged in Texas |journal=J. Raptor Res. |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=213–19 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v028n04/p00213-p00219.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v028n04/p00213-p00219.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=j22>{{cite journal |author=Doyle, F. I. |year=1995 |title=Bald Eagle, ''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'', and Northern Goshawk, ''Accipiter gentilis'', nests apparently preyed upon by a wolverine(s), ''Gulo gulo'', in the southwestern Yukon Territory |journal=Canadian Field-Naturalist |volume=109 |pages=115–16 |doi=10.5962/p.357587 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=j23>{{Cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=E.A. |year=1990 |title=Symbol of a Nation: The Bald Eagle in American Culture |journal=The Journal of American Culture |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=63–69 |doi=10.1111/j.1542-734X.1990.1301_63.x}}</ref>

<ref name=j24>{{cite journal |author=Buehler, D. A. |author2=Fraser, J. D. |author3=Seegar, J. K. D. |author4=Therres, G. D. |author5=Byrd, M. A. |year=1991 |title=Survival rates and population dynamics of Bald Eagles on Chesapeake Bay |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=55 |pages=608–13 |doi=10.2307/3809506 |issue=4 |jstor=3809506}}</ref>

<ref name=j25>{{cite journal |author=Folk, M. J. |year=1992 |title=Cooperative hunting of avian prey by a pair of Bald Eagles |journal=Florida Field Naturalist |volume=20 |pages=110–12}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Beans |first=Bruce E. |title=Eagle's Plume: The Struggle to Preserve the Life and Haunts of America's Bald Eagle |year=1996 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-80696-9 |oclc=35029744 |url=https://archive.org/details/eaglesplumestrug00bean}}
* {{cite book |last=Gerrard |first=Jonathan M. |author2=Bortolotti, Gary R. |title=The Bald Eagle: Haunts and Habits of a Wilderness Monarch |year=1988 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87474-451-4 |oclc=16801779 |url=https://archive.org/details/baldeaglehauntsh00gerr}}
* {{cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Philip M. |title=The American Eagle |url=https://archive.org/details/americaneagle0000isaa |url-access=registration |year=1975 |edition=1st |publisher=New York Graphic Society |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-0-8212-0612-6 |oclc=1366058}}
* {{cite book |last=Knight |first=Richard L. |author2=Gutzwiller, Kevin J. |title=Wildlife and Recreationists: Coexistence through Management and Research |year=1995 |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-1-55963-257-7 |oclc=30893485}}
* {{cite book |last=Laycock |first=George |title=Autumn of the Eagle |year=1973 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-13413-0 |oclc=754345 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/autumnofeagle0000layc}}
* {{cite book |last=Petersen |first=Shannon |title=Acting for Endangered Species: The Statutory Ark |year=2002 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence |isbn=978-0-7006-1172-0 |oclc=48477567}}
* {{cite book |last=Spencer |first=Donald A. |title=Wintering of the Migrant Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States |year=1976 |publisher=[[National Agricultural Chemicals Association]] |location=Washington, DC |oclc=2985418}}
* {{cite book |last=Temple |first=Stanley A. |title=Endangered Birds: Management Techniques for Preserving Threatened Species |year=1978 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=978-0-299-07520-0 |oclc=3750666 |url=https://archive.org/details/endangeredbirds00symp}}
{{Refend}}

===Identification===
* [[Grant, Peter J.]] (1988) "The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle" ''[[Twitching (magazine)|Twitching]]'' 1(12): 379–80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white-tailed eagle in juveniles

==External links==
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{{Commons and category|Haliaeetus leucocephalus|Haliaeetus leucocephalus}}
{{Wikispecies|Haliaeetus leucocephalus|the bald eagle}}
* [http://www.nationaleaglecenter.org The National Eagle Center]
* [http://www.baldeagles.org American Bald Eagle Foundation]
* [http://baldeagleinfo.com American Bald Eagle Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116140704/http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/ |date=January 16, 2009 }}
* [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/index.php/download_file/view/1198/724/ Bald eagle bird sound] – Florida Museum of Natural History

===Video links===
* {{InternetBirdCollection|bald-eagle-haliaeetus-leucocephalus|Bald eagle}}
* {{VIREO|bald+eagle|Bald eagle}}
* [https://www.flickr.com/groups/birdguide/pool/tags/Haliaeetus%20leucocephalus Photo field guide on Flickr]
* [http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle12.html 100+ Bald Eagles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123065447/http://www.baldeagleinfo.com/eagle/eagle12.html |date=November 23, 2017 }}

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[[Category:Haliaeetus|bald eagle]]
[[Category:Eagles|bald eagle]]
[[Category:Apex predators]]
[[Category:Scavengers]]
[[Category:Birds of Canada]]
[[Category:Birds of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of North America]]
[[Category:Native birds of the Rocky Mountains]]
[[Category:National symbols of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1766|bald eagle]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of North America]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of the United States]]