Editing Banisteriopsis caapi

{{short description|Species of plant}}
{{Speciesbox
|image = Caapi.jpg
|image_caption = Young ''B. caapi''
|genus = Banisteriopsis
|species = caapi
|authority = ([[Richard Spruce|Spruce]] ex [[August Heinrich Rudolf Grisebach|Griseb.]]) [[Conrad Vernon Morton|C.V.Morton]]<ref>{{GRIN | access-date = 15 December 2017}}</ref>
|synonyms_ref = <ref name="716679-1" >{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:29180-2#synonyms |title='' Banisteriopsis caapi'' (Spruce ex Griseb.) Morton |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=18 December 2020 }}</ref>
|synonyms = {{Collapsible list|
*''Banisteria caapi'' <small>Spruce ex Griseb.</small>
*''Banisteria inebrians'' <small>(C.V.Morton) J.F.Macbr.</small>
*''Banisteria quitensis'' <small>Nied.</small>
*''Banisteriopsis inebrians'' <small>Morton</small>
*''Banisteriopsis quitensis'' <small>(Nied.) Morton</small>
}}}}

'''''Banisteriopsis caapi''''', also known as, '''caapi''', '''soul vine''', '''yagé''' ('''yage'''), or '''ayahuasca''' (the latter of which also refers to the psychedelic [[decoction]] made with the vine and a plant source of [[dimethyltryptamine]]) is a [[South America]]n [[liana]] of the family [[Malpighiaceae]]. It is commonly used as an ingredient of [[ayahuasca]], a [[decoction]] with a long history of its [[entheogen]]ic use and holds status as a "plant teacher" among the [[Indigenous peoples]] of the [[Amazon rainforest]].

It was used by [[Indigenous peoples of South America]] for centuries, but it was first documented by [[Europeans]] in the 16th century and formally identified by botanist [[Richard Spruce]] in 1851.<!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.--> According to ''The CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names'' by Umberto Quattrocchi, the naming of the [[genus]] ''[[Banisteriopsis]]'' was dedicated to [[John Banister (naturalist)|John Banister]], a 17th-century English clergyman and naturalist. An earlier name for the genus was ''Banisteria'' and the plant is sometimes referred to as ''Banisteria caapi''. Other names include ''Banisteria quitensis'', ''Banisteriopsis inebrians'', and ''Banisteriopsis quitensis''.<ref name="Christian" />

It is a giant vine that can grow up to 30 meters long, with pale [[flower]]s that bloom infrequently and resembles related species like ''Banisteriopsis membranifolia'' and ''B. muricata''. It contains [[beta-carboline]] alkaloids and [[polyphenol]]s. <!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.-->

Its legal status varies by country: it is largely unregulated in the [[United States]] (with specific religious exemptions for use of the ayahuasca decoction), ambiguously legal in [[Canada]] and parts of [[Australia]], and effectively illegal in France despite past religious use rulings. <!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.-->

==Description==
Caapi is a giant vine with characteristic {{convert|12-14|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} white or pale pink flowers which most commonly appear in January, but are known to bloom infrequently. It resembles ''Banisteriopsis membranifolia'' and ''Banisteriopsis muricata'', both of which are related to caapi.<ref name=Christian />
[[File:3209-Banisteriopsis caapi-Teplice BZ.jpg|right|thumb|Caapi flowering]]

The vine can grow up to {{convert|30|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in length, twining on other plants for support.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Banisteriopsis+caapi | title = Banisteriopsis caapi | publisher = theferns.info}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=March 2019}}

==Phytochemicals==
===Alkaloids===
Caapi contains the following [[harmala alkaloid]]s:

*[[Harmine]], 0.31–8.43%<ref name="Callaway2005" />
*[[Harmaline]], 0.03–0.83%<ref name="Callaway2005" />
*[[Tetrahydroharmine]], 0.05–2.94%<ref name="Callaway2005" />

These alkaloids of the [[beta-Carboline|beta-carboline]] class act as [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] (MAOIs).<ref name="pmid19879939">{{cite journal |vauthors=Samoylenko V, Rahman MM, Tekwani BL, Tripathi LM, Wang YH, Khan SI, Khan IA, Miller LS, Joshi VC, Muhammad I |title=Banisteriopsis caapi, a unique combination of MAO inhibitory and antioxidative constituents for the activities relevant to neurodegenerative disorders and Parkinson's disease |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=357–67 |date=February 2010 |pmid=19879939 |pmc=2828149 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.10.030 }}</ref> The MAOIs allow the primary psychoactive compound, [[N,N-dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], which is introduced from the other common ingredient in ayahuasca ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'', to be orally active.

The stems contain 0.11–0.83% beta-carbolines, with harmine and tetrahydroharmine as the major components.<ref name="Callaway2005">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795 | last1 = Callaway | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Brito | first2 = Glacus S. | last3 = Neves | first3 = Edison S. | title = Phytochemical analyses of ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' and ''Psychotria viridis''| journal = Journal of Psychoactive Drugs | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–150 |date=June 2005| pmid = 16149327| s2cid = 30736017 }} {{closed access}}</ref>

Alkaloids are present in all parts of the plant.<ref name="Christian">{{cite book |last= Rätsch|first= Christian|date= 2005|title=The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications|publisher= Inner Traditions/Bear|isbn=9780892819782}}</ref>

=== Polyphenols ===
In addition to beta-carbolines, caapi is known to contain [[proanthocyanidins]], [[epicatechin]] and [[procyanidin B2]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Composition, Standardization and Chemical Profiling of Banisteriopsis caapi, a Plant for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders Relevant to Parkinson's Disease|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=128|issue=3|pages=662–671|pmc=2878139|year=2010|last1=Wang|first1=Y. H.|last2=Samoylenko|first2=V.|last3=Tekwani|first3=B. L.|last4=Khan|first4=I. A.|last5=Miller|first5=L. S.|last6=Chaurasiya|first6=N. D.|last7=Rahman|first7=M. M.|last8=Tripathi|first8=L. M.|last9=Khan|first9=S. I.|last10=Joshi|first10=V. C.|last11=Wigger|first11=F. T.|last12=Muhammad|first12=I.|pmid=20219660|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2010.02.013}}</ref>

==History==
The first mentions of caapi come from early Spanish and Portuguese explorers and missionaries who visited South America in the 16th century, describing ayahuasca brews as "diabolic" and dangerous decoctions.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.ayahuasca.com/amazon/when-and-how-was-ayahuasca-discovered-by-the-world-outside-the-amazon/| title=When and how was Ayahuasca discovered by the world outside the Amazon?| date=4 May 2008| access-date=28 October 2018| archive-date=22 October 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022095827/http://www.ayahuasca.com/amazon/when-and-how-was-ayahuasca-discovered-by-the-world-outside-the-amazon/| url-status=dead}}</ref>

Although utilised among the indigenous tribes of South America for hundreds and perhaps even thousands of years, caapi was not identified by westerners until 1851, when [[Richard Spruce]], an English botanist, described it as a new species. He observed how [[Guahibo people|Guahibo]]s,
the indigenous people of Llanos (Venezuela), chewed the bark of caapi instead of brewing it as a drink.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schultes|first=Richard Evans|date=1977|title=Hallucinogenic Plants|publisher=Golden Press |url=https://archive.org/details/hallucinogenicpl00schu_0|isbn=0-307-24362-1|url-access=registration}}</ref>

==Legality==

===United States===
In the United States, caapi is not specifically regulated. A 2006 Supreme Court decision involving caapi-containing ayahuasca, which also contains other plants containing the controlled substance [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], introduced from the ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'' component, ''[[Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal]]'', was found in favor of the [[União do Vegetal]], a Brazilian religious sect using the tea in their ceremonies and having around 130 members in the United States.
===Australia===
In Australia, the harmala alkaloids are scheduled substances, including harmine and harmaline; however, the living vine, or other source plants are not scheduled in most states. In the State of Queensland as of March 2008,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/ACTS/2008/08AC004.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806135415/http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/ACTS/2008/08AC004.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> this distinction is now uncertain.  In all states, the dried herb may or may not be considered a scheduled substance, dependent on court rulings.
===Canada===
In Canada, harmala is listed under the [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act]] as a schedule III substance. The vine and the ayahuasca brew are legal ambiguities, since nowhere in the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is it stated that natural material containing a scheduled substance is illegal, a position supported by the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board.<ref>[https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/images/archive/ayahuasca_law_undcp_fax1.jpg International control of the preparation "ayahuasca"], letter from the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board</ref>
===France===
Caapi, as well as a range of harmala alkaloids, are scheduled in France following a court victory by the [[Santo Daime]] religious sect allowing use of the tea due to it not being a chemical extraction and the fact that the plants used were not scheduled.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} Religious exceptions to narcotics laws are not allowed under French law, effectively making any use or possession of the tea illegal.{{Contradict-inline|date=August 2016}}

==Patent==
The caapi vine itself was the subject of a dispute between U.S. entrepreneur Loren Miller and the Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA). In 1986, Miller obtained a U.S. [[patent]] on a variety of ''B. caapi''.<ref>{{US patent|PP5751}}</ref> COICA argued the patent was invalid because Miller's variety had been previously described in the [[University of Michigan Herbarium]], and was therefore neither new nor distinct.<ref>{{cite web|title=Situation of the patent for Ayahuasca|date=7 July 2003|url=http://www.coica.org.ec/ingles/ma_documents/patent_ayahuasca.html|access-date=10 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110421224307/http://www.coica.org.ec/ingles/ma_documents/patent_ayahuasca.html|archive-date=21 April 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The patent was overturned in 1999; however, in 2001, the [[United States Patent Office]] reinstated the patent because the law at the time the patent was granted did not allow a third party such as COICA standing to object. The Miller patent expired in 2003. ''B. caapi'' is now being cultivated commercially in [[Hawaii]].{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}

==See also==

*[[Ayahuasca]]
*[[Entheogen]]
*[[List of psychoactive plants]]
*[[Ethnobotany]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|last1=Barbosa|first1=PC|last2=Cazorla|first2=IM|last3=Giglio|first3=JS|last4=Strassman|first4=R|title=A six-month prospective evaluation of personality traits, psychiatric symptoms and quality of life in ayahuasca-naïve subjects.|journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|date=September 2009|volume=41|issue=3|pages=205–12|pmid=19999673|doi=10.1080/02791072.2009.10400530|s2cid=29835785}}<!--|access-date=April 28, 2015-->
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Berlowitz I, Egger K, Cumming P |title=Monoamine Oxidase Inhibition by Plant-Derived β-Carbolines; Implications for the Psychopharmacology of Tobacco and Ayahuasca |journal=Front Pharmacol |volume=13 |issue= |pages=886408 |date=2022 |pmid=35600851 |pmc=9121195 |doi=10.3389/fphar.2022.886408|doi-access=free }}

==External links==
* [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=149 ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Databases)]
* [http://www.amazonlink.org/biopiracy/ayahuasca.htm Report on indigenous use of the plant, and the patent dispute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915011855/http://www.amazonlink.org/biopiracy/ayahuasca.htm |date=2008-09-15 }}
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=/netahtml/search-adv.htm&r=2&p=1&f=G&l=50&d=ptxt&S1=caapi&OS=caapi&RS=caapi United States Patent # PP5,751,  Miller,  June 17, 1986, Banisteriopsis caapi (cv) `Da Vine`] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031194445/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=/netahtml/search-adv.htm&r=2&p=1&f=G&l=50&d=ptxt&S1=caapi&OS=caapi&RS=caapi |date=October 31, 2018 }}
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/banisteriopsis/banisteriopsis.shtml Erowid's Vault article on the plant]
* [http://www.ayahuasca-info.com/ A General Introduction to Ayahuasca] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013103019/http://www.ayahuasca-info.com/ |date=2015-10-13 }}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q133573}}
{{Psychedelics}}

[[Category:Ayahuasca]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Flora of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Flora of Peru]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Malpighiaceae]]
[[Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1858]]
[[Category:Taxa named by August Grisebach]]