Editing Batik

{{short description |Cloth dyeing technique}}
{{Others}}
{{For|the batik traditions specific to its country of origin|Batik in Indonesia}}
{{EngvarB |date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox textile
 |name        = Batik<br />{{nobold |{{Script |Java |ꦧꦛꦶꦏ꧀}}}}
 |image       = Batik Trusmi Cirebon (23).jpg
 |caption     = [[Cirebon Javanese batik|Cirebon]]-style batik at the [[Trusmi Batik Village]], [[West Java]]
 |type        = Art fabric
 |material    = {{hlist|[[Cambrics]]|[[silk]]|[[cotton]]}}
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
 |Image       = 
 |Caption     = 
 |ICH         = Batik
 |State Party = Indonesia
 |ID          = 00170
 |Region      = APA
 |Year        = 2009
 |Session     = 4th
 |List        = Representative
 |Note        = Written batik (''batik tulis'') and stamped batik (''batik cap'')
}}
{{Contains special characters|Javanese}}

'''Batik''' ({{IPAc|en|baˈtiːk}}, ''[[Help:Pronunciation respelling key|buh-TEEK]]''; {{ety|jv|baṭik}})<ref name="Etymology">{{citation |title= Batik |url= https://www.oed.com/dictionary/batik_n?tab=etymology-paywall#26282814 |work= Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/OED/1867416628}}</ref> is an art and method (originally used in [[Java]]) of producing colored designs on textiles by [[dye]]ing them, having first applied [[wax]] to the parts to be left undyed.<ref name="OED">{{citation |title= Batik |url= https://www.oed.com/dictionary/batik_n?tab=meaning_and_use-paywall#26282814 |work= Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/OED/1867416628}}</ref> The term is also used to describe patterned textiles created with that technique. Batik is made by drawing or stamping wax on a cloth to prevent colour absorption during the dyeing process. This creates a patterned negative when the wax is removed from the dyed cloth. Artisans may create intricate coloured patterns with multiple cycles of wax application and dyeing. Patterns and motifs vary widely even within countries. Some patterns hold symbolic significance and are used only in certain occasions, while others were created to satisfy market demand and fashion trends.

Resist dyeing using wax has been practised since ancient times, and it is attested in several world cultures, such as Egypt, southern China (especially among hilltribes like the [[Miao people|Miao]], [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]], and [[Gejia people]]s), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka. The technique developed [[Batik in Indonesia|in Indonesia]] (especially in [[Java]]) is among the most sophisticated, although its antiquity is difficult to determine. It first became widely known outside of Southeast Asia when it was described in the 1817 ''[[The History of Java|History of Java]]'', leading to significant collecting efforts and scholarly studies of the tradition and crafts. Javanese batik was subject to several innovations in the 19th to early-20th centuries, such as the use of stamp printing of wax to increase productivity. Many workshops and artisans are active today, creating a wide range of products and influencing other textile traditions and artists.

== Etymology ==
The English word ''batik'' is borrowed from [[Javanese language|Javanese]] {{lang|jv-Latn|bathik}} ([[Javanese script]]: {{lang|jv|ꦧꦛꦶꦏ꧀}}, [[Pegon script|Pegon]]: {{lang|jv-Arab|باتيق}}).{{efn |{{IPA|jv|ˈb̥aʈɪʔ |pronunciation:}}; {{IPA|id|ˈbatɪk |lang}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Poerwadharminta |first=W.J.S. |title=Baoesastra Djawa |year=1939 |place=Batavia |publisher=J.B Wolters'}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Robson |first1=Stuart |last2=Wibisono |first2=Singgih |title=Javanese-English Dictionary |year=2002 |place=Hong Kong |publisher=Periplus Editions}}</ref> English dictionaries tend to define batik as a general dyeing technique,<ref>{{cite web |title=Batik |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/batik |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=Cambridge |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503091333/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/batik |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Batik">{{cite web |title=Batik |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/batik |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=Merriam-Webster |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202171640/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/batik |url-status=live}}</ref> meaning that cloths with similar methods of production but culturally unrelated to Javanese batik may be labelled as ''batik'' in English.{{efn|It is also Javanese terms that are often used in English sources to discuss batik cloths and techniques}} [[Robert Blust]] traces the Javanese word as a reflex of [[Proto-Austronesian]] {{lang|map|*batik}} and its doublet {{lang|map|*beCik}} which means decorations and patterns in general.{{sfn|Blust|1995|pp=496}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen |title=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition |url=https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/acd-s_b.htm#29977 |date=2020}}</ref>{{efn|Some sources claim that the term is a contraction of two Javanese words ''amba'' 'to write' and ''titik'' 'dots' or some other variations, but invariably these claims do not have clear source and is more akin to [[folk etymology|folk]] derived [[backronym]].}} In Java, the word is only attested in sources post dating the Hindu–Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward.{{sfn|Langewis & Wagner|1964|pp=16}}{{sfn|Maxwell|2003|pp=325}}{{efn|Only the term {{lang|und|tulis warna|italic=yes}}, surmised to be similar with modern {{lang|jv-Latn|batik tulis}} production technique, has been attested in pre-Islamic Javanese sources{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022|pp=66}}}} Outside of Java, the word first appears in a 1641 merchant ship's [[bill of lading]] as {{lang|und|batick|italic=yes}}.{{sfn|Gittinger|1979|pp=16}} The term and technique came to wider public notice beyond Southeast Asia following [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]]'s description of batik process in his 1817 book ''[[The History of Java]]''.{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022|pp=64}} Colonial era Dutch sources record the word in various spellings, such as {{lang|und|mbatik|italic=yes}}, {{lang|und|mbatek|italic=yes}}, {{lang|und|batik|italic=yes}}, and {{lang|und|batek|italic=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-08-30 |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |title=batik |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/batik_n?tab=factsheet#26282814}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/batik |title=Batik |website=[[Dictionary.com]] |access-date=2024-08-30 }}</ref>

== History ==

=== Ancient to early modern periods ===

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="180px" widths="220px" caption="Ancient pieces and representation of Resist dyeing using wax">
File:Niya batik.jpg|Fragment of dyed textile from [[Niya (Tarim Basin)]], China, 3rd to early 4th century
File:Egypt, Byzantine period, 1st half of 6th century - Resist-Dyed Hanging with Biblical Scenes - 1951.400 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Fragment of hanging with Biblical scenes, from Byzantine period Egypt, early 6th century
File:Ceremonial Banner from India, possibly 14th century, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|Ceremonial banner from India, possibly 14th century
</gallery>

Batik-like resist dyeing is an ancient art form. It existed in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies; linen was soaked in wax, and scratched using a stylus. It continued to be used to the medieval [[Roman Egypt|Byzantine era]], although surviving pieces are rare.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Elizabeth Dospěl |last2=Krody |first2=Sumru Belger |last3=Bühl |first3=Gudrun |year=2019 |title=Woven Interiors: Furnishing Early Medieval Egypt |place=Washington |publisher=The George Washington University Museum and The Textile Museum |url=https://museum.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs6286/files/Woven%20Interiors%20Catalogue.pdf |isbn=978-0-87405-040-0|pages=67–68, 86}}</ref> In Asia, the technique is attested in India, the [[Tang dynasty]] in China, and the [[Nara Period]] in Japan. In Africa it was practiced by the [[Yoruba people]] of Nigeria, as well as by the [[Soninke people|Soninke]] and [[Wolof people|Wolof]] of Senegal.{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}

<!--[[File:Stone statue of Mahakala.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|''Kawung'' batik motif on Mahakala statue, from temple at [[Singhasari]], [[East Java]], Indonesia 12th-century]]-->
[[File:Prajnaparamita clothes detail.JPG|thumb|Clothing detail of 13th-century [[East Java]]nese [[Prajnaparamita of Java|Prajnaparamita]] statue, [[National Museum of Indonesia]], [[Jakarta]]]]
The art of batik is highly developed on the island of [[Java]], Indonesia, although the antiquity of the technique is difficult to determine since batik pieces rarely survive long in the region's tropical climate. The Dutch historians G. G. Rouffaer & H. H. Juynboll argue that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}{{sfn|Rouffaer & Juynboll|1899}} The similarities between some traditional batik patterns with clothing details in ancient Hindu-Buddhist statuaries, for example [[Prajnaparamita of Java|East Javanese Prajnaparamita]], has made some authors attribute batik's creation to Java's Hindu-Buddhist period (8th-16th century AD).<ref name="Volkenkunde">{{cite web |title=Prajnaparamita and other Buddhist deities |url=http://volkenkunde.nl/nl/node/1049 |publisher=Volkenkunde Rijksmuseum |access-date=1 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502004644/http://volkenkunde.nl/nl/node/1049 |archive-date=2 May 2014 }}</ref> Some scholars cautioned that mere similarity of pattern is not conclusive of batik, as it could be made by other non-related techniques.{{sfn|Pullen|2021|pp=58}} Since the word "batik" is not attested in any pre-Islamic sources, some scholars have taken the view that batik only developed at the end of Java's Hindu-Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward following the demise of [[Majapahit]] kingdom.{{sfn|Langewis & Wagner|1964|pp=16}}{{sfn|Maxwell|2003|pp=325}} However, this view has not taken into account the oldest surviving physical Javanese batik piece, which was only identified in 2022. It is a blue-white [[wikt:valance|valance]] [[carbon date]]d to the 13th or 14th century, which correspond to early Majapahit period. The batik's quality and dating suggest that sophisticated batik techniques already existed at the time, but competed with the more established [[ikat]] textiles.{{sfn|Sardjono & Buckley|2022}}

Batik craft further flourished in the Islamic courts of Java in the following centuries. The development of prominent batik types was partly motivated by the desire to replicate prestigious foreign textiles (such as Indian [[Patola sari|patola]]) brought in by the Indian Ocean maritime trade.{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}} When the [[Dutch East Indies Company]] began to impose their monopolistic trade practice in 17th century Indonesia, batik cloths was one of the product which stifled their textile sales. Dutch imports of [[chintz]] from the [[Coromandel coast]] could not compete with locally made batik due to their robust production and high quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ruurdje |first=Laarhoven |title=A Silent Textile Trade War: Batik Revival as Economic and Political Weapon in 17th Century Java |date=September 2012 |journal=Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/705?utm_source=digitalcommons.unl.edu%2Ftsaconf%2F705&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" heights="180px" widths="220px" caption="Modern pieces and representation of batik cloths">
File:Raffles A Javan Chief in his ordinary dress.jpg|Depiction of early 19th century Javanese citizen wearing batik sarong, from ''The History of Java''
File:Sarong, Northern Java, Indonesia, 1900-1910, cotton - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04349.JPG|Sarong in the {{lang|id|pesisir}} "coastal" style from northern Javanese coast, early 20th century
File:Batik pedalaman - sidha drajat.JPG|Contemporary inland batik from Solo, Indonesia, with ''sidha drajat'' pattern.
File:Afrikanische Textilien.jpg|Waxprint fabrics in [[Togo]], a modern African adaption of Javanese batik
</gallery>

Batik technique became more widely known (particularly by Europeans outside of southeast Asia) when the Javanese version was described in ''The History of Java'', starting the collecting and scholarly interest in batik traditions. In 1873 the Dutch merchant Elie Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum in [[Rotterdam]]. Examples were displayed at Paris's [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] in 1900. Today the [[Tropenmuseum]] houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in the [[Netherlands]].{{sfn|Nava|1991|}}

In the 19th to early 20th century, Dutch Indo–Europeans and Chinese settlers were actively involved in the production and development of Javanese batik, particularly {{lang|id|pesisir}} "coastal" style batik in the northern coast of Java. Scholars such as J.E. Jasper and Mas Pirngadie published books extensively documenting existing batik patterns.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jasper|first1=J.E.|last2=Pingardie|first2=Mas|title=De inlandsche kunstnijverheid in Nederlandsch Indië III: De batikkunst|date=1916|place='S-Gravenhage|publisher=Mouton & co.|hdl=1887.1/item:1094712 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1887.1/item:1094712 |ref=none}}</ref> These in turn were used by Dutch and Chinese artisans to develop new patterns which blended several cultural influences, and who also introduced innovations such as {{lang|id|cap}} (copper block stamps) to mass-produce batiks and synthetic dyes which allow brighter colours. Several prominent batik ateliers appeared, such as Eliza van Zuylen (1863–1947) and Oey Soe Tjoen (1901-1975),{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013|pp=67,107-111}} and their products catered to a wide audience in the [[Malay archipelago]] (encompassing modern Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore). Batik skirts and sarongs for example were widely worn by indigenous, Chinese, and European women of the region, paired with the ubiquitous [[kebaya]] shirt. Batik was also used for more specialized applications, such as [[peranakan]] altar cloth called {{lang|nan-Latn|tok wi}} ({{zh|t=桌帷|labels=no}}).{{sfn|Lee et al|2015}}{{sfn|Shen & Wong|2023}} 

It is in this time period as well that the Javanese batik production spread overseas. In [[Subsaharan Africa]], Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English merchants. It was subsequently modified by local artisans with larger motifs, thicker lines, and more colours into what is now known as [[African wax prints]]. Modern West African versions also use [[cassava]] starch, rice paste, or mud as a resist.<ref name="BGAfrica">{{cite web |title=Batik in Africa |url=http://www.batikguild.org.uk/historyAfrica.asp |publisher=The Batik Guild |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409045340/http://www.batikguild.org.uk/historyAfrica.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to the eastern coast of [[Malay Peninsula]] introduced batik production using stamp blocks.{{sfn|Shaharuddin et al|2021}}

Many traditional ateliers in Java collapsed immediately following the Second World War and [[Indonesian National Revolution|Indonesian wars of independence]],{{sfn|Harmsen|2018}} but many workshops and artisans are still active today creating a wide range of products. They still continue to influence a number of textile traditions and artists. In the 1970s for example, batik was introduced to [[Australia]], where aboriginal artists at [[Ernabella]] have developed it as their own craft.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stevy |first=Maradona |title=Antropolog Australia Beri Ceramah Soal Batik |website=Republika |url=http://www.republika.co.id/berita/breaking-news/seni-budaya/11/02/09/163234-antropolog-australia-beri-ceramah-soal-batik |date=11 February 2011 }}</ref> The works of the English artist [[Thetis Blacker]] were influenced by Indonesian batik; she had worked in Yogyakarta's Batik Research Institute and had travelled in Bali.<ref name="independent">{{cite news |last=Buckman |first=David |title=Thetis Blacker: Visionary batik painter |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/thetis-blacker-434360.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/thetis-blacker-434360.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |date=31 January 2007 |location=UK |accessdate=29 April 2016 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Techniques ==

Production begins by washing the base cloth,{{efn|Batik applies resist on weaved fabric, in contrast to [[ikat]] which applies resist to the yarns prior to weaving.}} soaking it, and beating it with a large mallet. Patterns are sketched with pencil and redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture of [[Alkane|paraffin]] or [[beeswax]], sometimes mixed with plant resins. The wax functions as a dye-resist which prevent colour absorption during the dyeing process. This creates a patterned negative when the wax is removed from the dyed cloth.{{sfn|Trefois|2010}}{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=50-59}} Using this mechanism, artisans may create intricate coloured patterns with multiple cycles of wax application and dyeing.

[[File:Resist dyeing.svg|thumb|upright=2|center|Principle of [[resist dyeing]] used in batik: a wax negative is created, enabling an area of any desired shape to be coloured. ]]

The wax can be applied with a variety of tools, including writing with a pen-like {{lang|id|canting}} tool, printing with a {{lang|id|cap}}, or painting with a brush.{{sfn|Trefois|2010}} The canting is the most basic and traditional tool, creating what is known as "written batik" ({{lang|id|batik tulis}}). It allows the creation of very fine, minute patterns but the process is very labour-intensive. Stamped batik ({{lang|id|batik cap}}) allows more efficient production for larger quantities at the expense of detail.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web |title=Indonesia Batik |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=21 October 2019 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208025553/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Handayani et al|2018|pp=237}}

=== Written batik ===

{{see also|Canting}}

Written batik or {{lang|id|batik tulis}} ([[Javanese script]]: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀; [[Pegon script|Pegon]]: باتيق توليس) is made by writing molten wax on the cloth with a pen-like instrument called a {{lang|id|[[canting]]}} ({{IPA|jv|tʃantiŋ}}, [[Van Ophuijsen Spelling System|old spelling]] {{lang|id|tjanting}}). It is a small copper reservoir with a spout on a wooden handle. The reservoir holds the resist which flows through the spout, creating dots and lines as it moves. The cloth is then dipped in a dye-bath, and left to dry. The resist is removed by boiling or scraping the cloth. The areas treated with resist keep their original colour; when the resist is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas forms the pattern. The process is repeated as many times as the number of colours desired.{{sfn|Trefois|2010|pp=99}}{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|p=135}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="200px" heights="200px" caption="Written batik using {{lang|id|canting}}">
File:Tjanting.jpg|A {{lang|id|canting}} in use to draw a resist pattern in molten wax
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Batiksters aan het werk TMnr 20017682.jpg |Written batik, drawing patterns with wax using {{lang|id|canting}} in [[Java]]
File:Miao batik 苗族蜡染, Guizhou, 2016 (52411662580).jpg|A {{lang|id|canting}} variant called ''ladao'' used by the [[Miao people]] of [[Guizhou]]
File:Batik-coloracio.jpg| A {{lang|id|canting}} variant used in Sri Lanka for thick outlines
</gallery>

=== Stamped batik ===

Stamped batik or {{lang|id|batik cap}} (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦕꦥ꧀; Pegon: باتيق چڤ) is batik whose manufacturing process uses a {{lang|id|cap}} ({{IPA|jv|tʃap}}; old spelling {{lang|id|tjap}}) stamp with carved motifs to print an area of the cloth with the resist. The material of the stamp can vary. Medieval Indian stamps tend to use wood. Modern Javanese stamps are made of copper strips and wires, the manufacture of which is a highly skilled process. The rest of the dyeing process is the same as for written batik. The replacement of the {{lang|id|canting}} with the {{lang|id|cap}} reduces the effort needed to make a batik cloth, and hence the cost, but still requires skill.<ref name="Ajie 2018">{{cite web |first=Stefanus |last=Ajie |title=Preserving traditional values through stamped batik |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2018/10/07/preserving-traditional-values-through-stamped-batik.html |publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]] |access-date=2024-08-30 |date=2018-10-18}}</ref>{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|pp=136–137}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="200px" heights="200px" caption="Stamped batik using {{lang|id|cap}}">

File:A handmade Batik Cap copper motif printing block.jpg|A handmade Javanese {{lang|id|batik cap}} for stamping patterns, made of copper strips and wires
File:Printing wax-resin resist for Batik with a Tjap, Yogyakarta, 1996.jpg|Hand-stamping batik using a {{lang|id|cap}} in [[Java]]
File:Bamako Fabric Stamper (26613476748).jpg|Hand-stamping batik using a {{lang|id|cap}} tool in a [[Bamako]] workshop, [[Mali]]
</gallery>

=== Painted batik ===

Painted batik or {{lang|id|batik lukis}} (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦭꦸꦏꦶꦱ꧀; Pegon: باتيق لوكيس) is a technique of making batik by painting (with or without a template) on a white cloth using a combination of tools such as the {{lang|id|canting}}, brush, cotton, or sticks to apply the resist, according to the painter. Brush application is especially useful to cover large areas of a cloth. Batik painting is a development of traditional batik art, producing contemporary (free) motifs or patterns. It may use more colours that are traditional in written batik.<ref name="Nafiun">{{cite web |title=Batik Lukis |url=https://www.nafiun.com/2015/03/batik-lukis.html |publisher=www.nafiun.com |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930011938/https://www.nafiun.com/2015/03/batik-lukis.html |url-status=live }}</ref><!--seems to be an online encyclopedia, i.e. a tertiary source, just about usable-->

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="200px" heights="200px" caption="Painted batik using brushes">

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een batikster tijdens het vervaardigen van een doek met een afbeelding van Rangda TMnr 20018445.jpg |A craftwoman in [[Yogyakarta]] making a [[Rangda]] wax motif using a brush.
File:Woman with brush painting batik Sri Lanka.JPG |Craftswoman brush painting with wax in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]]. Note the large cover area of the wax
<!--File:Indonesian_Batik_painting_representing_Rama-Sinta_wayang_figures.jpg|Indonesian Batik painting representing Rama-Sinta {{lang|id|[[wayang kulit]]}} (shadow puppet) figures-->
</gallery>

=== Dyeing ===

The dyeing process is similar regardless of the wax application technique. Waxed cloths are dipped in vats of dye according to the desired colour. Wax is then scraped off or removed by boiling water, leaving a patterned negative on the cloth. The wax application and dyeing are repeated as necessary. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, dyeing is one of the more technically complicated production stages, for several reasons. Natural dyes, mostly vegetal, do not always produce consistent colours between batches. Dyers must take into account how different dye shades interact when cloths go through multiple stages of dyeing with different colours. Many dyers use proprietary dye recipes for this reason, using locally sourced plant materials. Natural dyes also take longer to produce deep shades of colour, extending the dyeing process.{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=56-59}} Synthetic dyes greatly simplify the process, but produce chemical waste that may be harmful for the environment. Eco-friendliness is one reason some batik producers opt to use natural dyes, despite the availability of synthetic alternatives.{{sfn|Handayani et al|2018}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013}}{{sfn|Trefois|2010}}

== Patterns and motifs ==

{{further|Indonesian batik patterns}}

The patterns of batik textiles are particular to the time, place, and culture of their producers. In textile scholarship, most studies have focused on [[Indonesian batik patterns]], as these drew from a wide range of cultural influences and are often symbolically rich. Some patterns are said to have loaded meanings and deep philosophies, with their use reserved for special occasions or groups of peoples (e.g. nobles, royalties).{{sfn |Elliott |1984|pp=68-69}} However, some scholars have cautioned that existing literature on Indonesian textiles over-romanticises and exoticises the purported meanings behind relatively mundane patterns.{{sfn|Barnes et al|2020|pp=4-5}} Some batik patterns (even if they are technically demanding and intricate) were created to satisfy market demand and fashion trends.{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2016}}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Cultural influences on Indonesian batik patterns<ref name="SMH">{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/01579-EN.doc |title=Nomination for inscription on the Representative List in 2009 (Reference No. 00170) |work=UNESCO |date=2 October 2009 |access-date=15 April 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416180402/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/01579-EN.doc |url-status=live }}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:120px;" |Cultural influences
! scope="col" style="width:320px;" |Batik patterns
! scope="col" style="width:140px;" |Geographic locations
! scope="col" style="width:30px; text-align:center;" |Sample
|-
|Native Indonesian || {{lang|id|[[Flower of Life (geometry)|Kawung]], ceplok, gringsing, [[Parang (batik)|parang]], lereng, truntum, sekar jagad}} (combination of motifs) and other decorative motifs such as of [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]], [[Batak]], [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuan]], [[Malay Indonesians|Riau Malay]]. ||[[Indonesian batik patterns|Respective areas with their own patterns]] ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - kawung.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[Hindu culture|Hindu]]–[[Buddhist culture|Buddhist]] ||{{lang|id|[[Garuda]], banji, cuwiri, [[kalpataru]], meru}} or {{lang|id|gunungan, semen rama, pringgondani, sidha asih, sidha mukti, sidha luhur}} ||Java ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - garuda.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[Islamic culture|Islamic]] ||{{lang|id|Besurek}} or [[Arabic calligraphy]], {{lang|id|[[buraq]]}} ||[[Bengkulu]], [[Cirebon]], [[Jambi]] ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Batik Besurek Bengkulu.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[Chinese culture|Chinese]] ||{{lang|id|[[fenghuang|Burung hong]]}} (Chinese phoenix), {{lang|id|[[Chinese dragon|liong]]}} (Chinese dragon), {{lang|id|[[qilin]], wadasan, megamendung}} (Chinese-style cloud), {{lang|id|lok tjan}} ||{{ill|Lasem, Rembang|lt=Lasem|id|vertical-align=sup}}, Cirebon, Pekalongan, [[Tasikmalaya]], [[Ciamis]] ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - qilin.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[Indian culture|Indian]] ||{{lang|id|Jlamprang}}, peacock, elephant ||Cirebon, [[Garut]], [[Pekalongan]], [[Madura]] ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - bangau.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[European culture|European]] (colonial era) ||{{lang|id|Buketan}} (floral bouquet), European fairytale, colonial images such as house, horses, carriage, bicycle and European-dressed people ||Java ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - buketan.jpg |100px]]
|-
|[[Japanese culture|Japanese]] ||{{lang|id|[[sakura]]}}, {{lang|id|hokokai}}, chrysanthemum, butterfly ||Java ||style="text-align:center;" |[[File:batik pattern - sakura.jpg |100px]]
|}

== Cultures ==
=== Africa ===

{{main|African wax prints}}

[[African wax prints]] were introduced during the colonial era, through the Dutch textile industry's effort to imitate the batik-making process. The imitation was not successful in Indonesian market, but was welcomed in West and Central Africa.{{sfn|Lemi|2024|pp=3}}<ref name="kroese">{{Cite book |title=The origin of the Wax Block Prints on the Coast of West Africa |last=Kroese |first=W.T. |publisher=Smit |year=1976 |isbn=9062895018 |location=Hengelo}}</ref><ref name="lagamma">{{Cite book |title=The Essential Art of African Textiles: Design Without End |last=LaGamma |first=Alisa |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2009 |location=New York |page=20}}</ref><!-- Nowadays batik is produced in many parts of Africa and it is worn by many [[African people |Africans]] as one of the symbols of culture.--> [[Nelson Mandela]] was a noted wearer of {{lang|jv|batik}} during his lifetime. Mandela regularly wore patterned loose-fitting shirt to many business and political meetings during 1994–1999 and after his tenure as [[President of South Africa]], subsequently dubbed as a [[Madiba shirt]] based on Mandela's [[Xhosa clan names|Xhosa clan name]].{{sfn|Grant|Nodoba|2009|p=361}} There are many who claim the Madiba shirt's invention. According to Yusuf Surtee, a clothing-store owner who supplied Mandela with outfits for decades, the Madiba design is based on Mandela's request for a shirt similar to [[Indonesia]]n president [[Suharto]]'s {{lang|jv|batik}} attire.{{sfn|Smith|2014|p=103}}

=== China ===

[[File:Fabric - Yunnan Nationalities Museum - DSC04148 (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Miao people|Miao]] baby-carrying quilt]]

Batik is made by ethnic peoples in the South-West of [[China]], and in neighbouring countries including Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, especially by hill tribes. The technique requires a ''ladao'' knife with two copper triangles mounted in a bamboo handle. Molten wax is held between the triangles, and can then be dripped from the knife to form a resist pattern on the cloth. Some ''ladao'' knives have more than two triangles, holding more wax and creating thicker lines.{{sfn|Gillow|Sentance|2000|pp=132–133}} The [[Miao people|Miao]], [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]] and [[Gejia people|Gejia]] people use a dye resist method for some of their traditional costumes<!-- others use ikat-->. Almost all the Miao decorate hemp and cotton by applying hot wax, and then dipping the cloth in an indigo dye. The cloth is then used for skirts, panels on jackets, aprons and baby carriers. Like the Javanese, their traditional patterns contain symbolism; the patterns include the [[dragon]], [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]], and flowers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhennan |first1=L. |last2=Yahaya |first2=S. R. |year=2021 |title=An Aesthetic Study on Traditional Batik Design of Miao Ethnicity in China |journal=KUPAS SENI: Jurnal Seni Dan Pendidikan Seni |volume=9 |issue=2|pages=12–25|url=https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/JSPS/article/view/5320|doi=10.37134/kupasseni.vol9.2.2.2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=The Batik Guild |last=Gaffney |first=Diane |title=Batik in China and South-east Asia |url=https://www.batikguild.org.uk/batik/china}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ka |first=Bo Tsang |title=Touched by Indigo: Chinese Blue-and-White Textiles and Embroidery |publisher=Royal Ontario Museum |place=Ontario |year=2005 |chapter=Pattern-dyed fabrics: Wax-resist |url=https://www.rom.on.ca/sites/default/files/imce/touchedbyindigo_original.pdf|pages=26–33}}</ref>

=== India ===

[[Indian people|Indians]] use resist-dyeing with cotton fabrics. Initially, wax and even rice starch were used for printing on fabrics. Until recently {{lang |jv |batik}} was made only for dresses and tailored garments, but modern {{lang |jv |batik}} is applied in numerous items, such as murals, wall hangings, paintings, household linen, and scarves, with livelier and brighter patterns. Contemporary {{lang |jv |batik}} making in [[India]] is done by the deaf women of [[Delhi]], who are fluent in [[Indian Sign Language]] and work in other vocational programs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burch |first1=Susan |last2=Kaferq |first2=Alison |title=Deaf and Disability Studies |year=2010 |publisher=GU Press |location=Washington D.C |isbn=978-1-56368-464-7 |page=52 |url=https://archive.org/details/deafdisabilityst0000unse/page/52}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===

{{main|Batik in Indonesia}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="300px" heights="160px" caption="Batik as worn in Indonesia">
File:Festival dancers in batik, Surakarta.jpg|Dancers of [[Bedhaya]], a royal dance from the palace of [[Surakarta]], wearing costume with prescribed batik patterns
File:Kebaya 1.jpg|Batik [[sarong]]s with a variety of patterns worn freely according to individual taste
</gallery>

Batik plays multiple roles in the [[culture of Indonesia]], especially in [[Javanese culture]]. The wax resist-dyeing technique has been used for centuries in [[Java]], where certain motifs had symbolic meaning and prescribed use, indicating a person's level in society.<ref name="unnes.ac.id">{{cite journal |url=https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/article/view/5143 |journal= Paramita: Historical Studies Journal |year=2016 |doi=10.15294/paramita.v26i1.5143 |archive-date=29 September 2021 |last1=Maziyah |first1=Siti |last2=Mahirta |first2=Mahirta |last3=Atmosudiro |first3=Sumijati |title=Makna Simbolis Batik Pada Masyarakat Jawa Kuna |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=23–32 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929235254/https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/article/view/5143 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is an essential component in the attires of Javanese royal palaces,<ref name="Government of West Java">{{cite web |title=Sejarah Batik Indonesia |url=https://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/pages/id/300 |publisher=Government of West Java |access-date=9 February 2021 |archive-date=12 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212214843/https://jabarprov.go.id/index.php/pages/id/300 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syed Shaharuddin |first1=Sharifah Imihezri |last2=Shamsuddin |first2=Maryam Samirah |last3=Drahman |first3=Mohd Hafiz |last4=Hasan |first4=Zaimah |last5=Mohd Asri |first5=Nurul Anissa |last6=Nordin |first6=Ahmad Amri |last7=Shaffiar |first7=Norhashimah Mohd |title=A Review on the Malaysian and Indonesian Batik Production, Challenges, and Innovations in the 21st Century |journal=SAGE Open |date=Jul 2021 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=215824402110401 |doi=10.1177/21582440211040128}}</ref> worn by monarchs, nobilities, ''abdi'' (palace staff), guards, and [[Javanese dance|dancers]].{{sfn|Wijanarko|2021}}{{sfn|Smend et al|2013}} On the other hand, there are non-ceremonial batik which has long been treated as a trade commodity, with usage that are determined by taste, fashion, and affordability. Today in Indonesia, batik pattern is commonly seen on shirts, dresses, and other everyday attire.<ref name="SMH"/>{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2013}}{{sfn|Sumarsono et al|2016}}{{sfn|Brussel|2021|pp=25-26}}

On 2 October 2009, [[UNESCO]] recognized written batik ({{lang|id|batik tulis}}) and stamped batik ({{lang|id|batik cap}}) as a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] from Indonesia.<ref name=UNESCO/> Since then, Indonesia has celebrated a [[Batik Day]] ({{lang|id|Hari Batik Nasional}}) annually on 2 October. In the same year, UNESCO recognized education and training in Indonesian Batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Education and training in Indonesian Batik intangible cultural heritage for elementary, junior, senior, vocational school and polytechnic students, in collaboration with the Batik Museum in Pekalongan |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/education-and-training-in-indonesian-batik-intangible-cultural-heritage-for-elementary-junior-senior-vocational-school-and-polytechnic-students-in-collaboration-with-the-batik-museum-in-pekalongan-00318 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208035305/https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/education-and-training-in-indonesian-batik-intangible-cultural-heritage-for-elementary-junior-senior-vocational-school-and-polytechnic-students-in-collaboration-with-the-batik-museum-in-pekalongan-00318 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Malaysia ===

{{main|Malaysian batik}}

[[File:Malaysian Batik.jpg|thumb|Craftsman in Malaysia creating a typical floral motif with light colouring]]

Trade relations between the [[Malay people|Malay]] kingdoms in Sumatra and Malay peninsula with Javanese coastal cities have thrived since the 13th century. The northern coastal batik-producing areas of [[Java]] (Cirebon, Lasem, Tuban, and Madura) have influenced [[Jambi]] batik,<ref>{{cite book |title=Batik Jambi: Melintas Masa |last1=Sunarto |first1=Azmiah Edi |last2=Priyono |first2=Bagus |year=2014 |place=Jakarta |publisher=Rumah Batik Azmiah}}</ref> which, along with Javanese batik, subsequently influenced the craft in the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Busana dan Aksesori Nusantara |magazine=National Geographic Traveller Indonesia |volume=1 |issue=6 |date=September 2009 |page=54}}</ref> Later, in the 1920s, a new influx of Javanese batik makers introduced stamped batik to the peninsula.{{sfn|Shaharuddin et al|2021}} The batik industry today provides significant benefit to the Malaysian economy, and the Malaysian government supports efforts to promote their own artisans and their products abroad.{{sfn|Hajura |2022|pp=88}} 

Fiona Kerlogue, of the [[Horniman museum]], noted several differences between Malaysian batik and traditional Indonesian batik. Malaysian batik patterns tend to be larger and simpler, making only occasional use of the {{lang|id|canting}} for intricate patterns. They rely heavily on [[brush]] painting to apply colours to fabrics. The colours are usually lighter and more vibrant than the deep-coloured Javanese batik popular in Indonesia. The most popular motifs are leaves and flowers; Malaysian batik often displays plants and flowers to avoid the interpretation of human and animal images as idolatry, in accordance with local Islamic doctrine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm |title=Figural Representation in Islamic Art |work=metmuseum.org |date=October 2001 |access-date=24 February 2010 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209083853/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Despite these differences, confusion between Malaysian and Indonesian batik has led to some disputes in the [[Indonesia-Malaysia relations|Indonesia-Malaysia bilateral relations]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Nick |title=Indonesians tell Malaysians 'Hands off our batik' |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/6251806/Indonesians-tell-Malaysians-Hands-off-our-batik.html |access-date=4 October 2017 |date =5 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004173222/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/6251806/Indonesians-tell-Malaysians-Hands-off-our-batik.html |archive-date=4 October 2017 }}</ref><!--Overlong, near [[WP:UNDUE]], far too much energy is going into this minor side-aspect-->{{efn|Cultural claims of batik (especially its purported "origins") is one of the disputes that has come up time to time. Malaysian made batik are prone to be accused as cultural appropriation by some Indonesian sources, while some Malaysian sources countered that these accusations only came up because Indonesian government were negligent in supporting their own batik industry and heritage.{{sfn|Hajura |2022|pp=89}}}}

=== Sri Lanka ===

{{main|Batik industry in Sri Lanka}}

<!--Batik was brought to [[Ceylon |Sri Lanka]] from [[Java]] by the [[Dutch Empire |Dutch]],{{cn |date=May 2014}}<Sunday Observer ref states "it is said that... Portuguese merchants"> and -->Over the past century, {{lang |jv |batik}} making in [[Sri Lanka]] has become firmly established. The {{lang |jv |batik}} industry in Sri Lanka is a small scale industry which can employ individual design talent. It  mainly deals with foreign customers for profit. In the 21st century, it has become the most visible of the island's crafts; galleries and factories, large and small, have sprung up in many tourist areas. For example, rows of small batik stalls can be found all along [[Hikkaduwa]]'s Galle Road strip. [[Mahawewa Divisional Secretariat|Mahawewa]], on the other hand, is famous for its {{lang |jv |batik}} factories.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://us.lakpura.com/pages/batik |title=Sri Lankan Batik Textiles |publisher=Lakpura Travels |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130102819/https://us.lakpura.com/pages/batik |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=SundayObserver>{{cite web |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2012/06/10/fea05.asp |title=Brighter future for batik industry |publisher=Sunday Observer (Sri Lanka) |date=10 June 2012 |access-date=1 May 2014 |last=Kannangara |first=Ananda |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502003257/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2012/06/10/fea05.asp |archive-date=2 May 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== See also ==

{{div col |colwidth=23em}}
* [[Bagh print]]
* [[Balinese textiles]]
* [[Folk costume]]
* [[Tenun]]
* [[Ikat]]
* [[Malong]]
* [[National costume of Indonesia]]
* [[Screen printing]]
* [[Songket]]
* [[Textile printing]]
* [[T'nalak]]
* [[Tsutsugaki]], Japanese resist-dyeing using starch, not wax
{{div col end}}

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{reflist |30em}}

== Sources ==

* {{Cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Ruth |last2=Duggan |first2=Geneviève |last3=Gavin |first3=Traude |last4=Hamilton |first4=Roy |last5=Nabholz-Kartaschoff |first5=Marie-Louise |last6=Babcock |first6=Tim |last7=Niessen |first7=Sandra |date=16 September 2020 |title=Review of Peter ten Hoopen's Ikat Textiles of the Indonesian Archipelago |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3695773 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3695773 |ref={{sfnref |Barnes et al |2020}}}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Blust |first=Robert |date=December 1995 |title=The Prehistory of the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples: A View from Language |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=453–510 |doi=10.1007/BF02221119 |url=https://zorc.net/rdzorc/AUSTRONESIAN/Blust%20-%201995%20-%20Prehistory%20of%20Austronesian%20Peoples%20-%20JWP%209-4%20p%20453-510.pdf}}
* {{Cite thesis|last=van Brussel|first=Tim|title=The production of batik in eighteenth century Java|year=2021|url=https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A3729411/view|publisher=Universiteit Leiden|place=Leiden|type=bachelor thesis|ref={{sfnref |Brussel |2021}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Elliott |first=Inger McCabe |year=1984 |title=Batik: fabled cloth of Java |place=New York |publisher=Clarkson N. Potter Inc. |isbn=0-517-55155-1 |ref=}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gillow |first1=John |last2=Sentance |first2=Bryan |title=World Textiles |date=2000 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-01950-4 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=Terri |last2=Nodoba |first2=Gaontebale |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247761225 |title=Dress Codes in Post-Apartheid South African Workplaces |date=August 2009 |journal=[[Business and Professional Communication Quarterly|Business Communication Quarterly]] |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=360–365 |doi=10.1177/1080569909340683 |s2cid=167453202}}
* {{cite book |last=Gittinger |first=Mattiebelle |year=1979 |title=Splendid Symbols: Textiles and Tradition in Indonesia |place=Singapore |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hajura |first=Shella |title=Shared Heritage Diplomacy of Indonesia and Malaysia as Soft Power in The Southeast Asia Region |journal=Jurnal Hubungan Internasional |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.18196/jhi.v10i2.12194 |date=2022 |page=84-95 |ref= |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Handayani |first1=Widhi |last2=Kristijanto |first2=Augustinus Ign |last3=Hunga |first3=Arianti Ina Restiani  |url=https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/wacana/vol19/iss1/10?utm_source=scholarhub.ui.ac.id%2Fwacana%2Fvol19%2Fiss1%2F10&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages |title=Behind the eco-friendliness of "batik warna alam"; Discovering the motives behind the production of batik in Jarum village, Klaten  |date=2018 |journal=Wacana, Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=235–256 |doi=10.17510/wacana.v19i1.673|ref={{sfnref |Handayani et al|2018}}|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite conference |last1=Harmsen |first1=Olga |title=Batik – How Emancipation of Dutch Housewives in the Dutch East Indies and "Back Home" Influenced Art Nouveau Design in Europe |ref= |conference=cdf III Art Nouveau International Congress |year=2018 |url=http://www.artnouveau.eu/admin_ponencies/functions/upload/uploads/harmsen_olga_paper.pdf |access-date=18 July 2022 |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626030038/http://www.artnouveau.eu/admin_ponencies/functions/upload/uploads/harmsen_olga_paper.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Langewis |first1=Laurens |last2=Wagner |first2=Frits A. |year=1964 |title=Decorative Art in Indonesian Textiles |place=Amsterdam |publisher=CPJ van der Peet |ref={{sfnref |Langewis & Wagner |1964}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Peter |last2=Kerlogue |first2=Fiona |last3=Chiesa |first3=Benjamin |last4=Joseph |first4=Maria Khoo |year=2015|title=Auspicious Designs: Batik for Peranakan Altars |place=Singapore |publisher=Asian Civilizations Museum |ref={{sfnref |Lee et al |2015}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lemi |first1=Ladu D. M. |title=Commemorative textiles: an African narrative of identity and power |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |year=2024 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=537 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03051-z |ref= |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Maxwell |first=Robyn |year=2003 |title=Textiles of Southeast Asia: Tradition, Trade and Transformation |place=Singapore |publisher=Periplus |ref=}}
* {{cite book |last=Nava |first=Nadia |year=1991 |title=Il batik: come tingere e decorare i tessuti diegnando con la cera |place= |publisher=Ulisse |ref= |isbn=88-414-1016-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Pullen |first=Lesley |year=2021 |title=Patterned Splendour: Textiles Presented on Javanese Metal and Stone Sculptures, Eighth to Fifteenth Century |place=Singapore |publisher=ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute |ref=}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rouffaer |first1=G. G. | last2=Juynboll | first2=H. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533878/page/n13/mode/2up |title=De batik-kunst in Nederlandsch-Indië en haar geschiedenis |date=1899 |place=Haarlem |publisher=H Kleinmann & Co |ref={{sfnref |Rouffaer & Juynboll |1899}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sardjono |first1=Sandra |last2=Buckley |first2=Christopher |title=A 700-years old blue-and-white batik from Indonesia |ref={{sfnref |Sardjono & Buckley |2022}} |journal=Fiber, Loom and Technique: The Journal of the Tracing Patterns Foundation|year=2022 |volume=1 |pages=64–78 |url=https://fltjournal.libraryhost.com/index.php/flt/article/view/7/6}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shaharuddin |first1=Sharifah Imihezri Syed |last2=Shamsuddin |first2=Maryam Samirah |last3=Drahman |first3=Mohd Hafiz |last4=Hasan |first4=Zaimah |last5=Asri |first5=Nurul Anissa Mohd |last6=Nordin |first6=Ahmad Amri |last7=Shaffiar |first7=Norhashimah Mohd |title=A Review on the Malaysian and Indonesian Batik Production, Challenges, and Innovations in the 21st Century |ref={{sfnref |Shaharuddin et al |2021}} |journal=SAGE Open |year=2021 |volume=11 |issue=3 |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211040128 |doi=10.1177/21582440211040128}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shen |first1=Yuexiu |last2=Wong |first2=Mei Sheong |editor1=James Bennett |editor2=Russel Kelty |year=2023 |title=Interwoven Journeys: the Michael Abbott Collections of Asian Art |chapter=Qilin, Rabbit and Pencils: Batik Tokwi from Northcoast Java |place=Adelaide |publisher=Art Gallery of South Australia (AGSA) |ref={{sfnref |Shen & Wong |2023}} }}
* {{cite book |last1=Smend |first1=Rudolf G. |last2=Majlis |first2=Brigitte Khan |last3=Veldhuisen |first3=Harmen C. |title=Batik: From the Courts of Java and Sumatra |location=Singapore |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |year=2013 |at=Frontispiece |isbn=978-146290695-6 |ref={{sfnref |Smend et al |2013}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx3dAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |title=How to Think Like Mandela |year=2014 |publisher=[[Michael O'Mara Books|Michael O'Mara]] |isbn=9781782432401}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sumarsono |first1=Hartono |last2=Ishwara |first2=Helen |last3=Yahya |first3=L.R. Supriyapto |last4=Moeis |first4= Xeni |year=2016 |title=Batik Garutan: Koleksi Hartono Sumarsono |place=Jakarta |publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia |isbn=978-602-6208-09-5 |ref={{sfnref |Sumarsono et al |2016}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sumarsono |first1=Hartono |last2=Ishwara |first2=Helen |last3=Yahya |first3=L.R. Supriyapto |last4=Moeis |first4=Xeni |year=2013 |title=Benang Raja: Menyimpul Keelokan Batik Pesisir |place=Jakarta |publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia |isbn=978-979-9106-01-8 |ref={{sfnref|Sumarsono et al|2013}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Trefois<!--of the Batik Guild--> |first=Rita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4O8cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |title=Fascinating Batik: Technique and Practice |year=2010 |place=Belgium |publisher=Rita Trefois |isbn=978-90-815246-2-9 |ref=}}
* {{cite book |last=Wijanarko |first=Fajar |date=2021 |title=Wastra-Langkara: literasi busana bangsawan Yogyakarta |place=Jakarta |publisher=Perpusnas Press |isbn=978-623-313-353-1 |ref=}}

<!--== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |last=Doellah |first=H. Santosa|year=2003 |title=Batik: The Impact of Time and Environment |place=Solo |publisher=Danar Hadi |isbn=979-97173-1-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser-Lu |first=Sylvia |year=1986 |title=Indonesian batik : processes, patterns, and places |place=Singapore |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-582661-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gillow |first1=John |last2=Dawson |first2=Barry|title=Traditional Indonesian Textiles |date=1995 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=0-500-27820-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tirta |first1=Iwan |last2=Steen |first2=Gareth L. |last3=Urso |first3=Deborah M.|last4=Alisjahbana |first4=Mario |year=1996 |title=Batik: a play of lights and shades, Volume 1|place=Indonesia |publisher=Gaya |isbn=978-979-515-313-9 |ref=none}}
-->

== External links ==

* {{commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wylWYSHkzoQ ''UNESCO: Indonesian Batik, Representative of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity'' – 2009]
* ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/58864 Early Indonesian textiles from three island cultures: Sumba, Toraja, Lampung]'', exhibition catalogue from Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
* ''[http://www.expat.or.id/info/batik.html Batik, the Traditional Fabric of Indonesia]'', an article about batik from Living in Indonesia
* ''[https://www.iwarebatik.org/ iWareBatik |Indonesian Batik Textile Heritage]'' A website devoted to Batik, Indonesian Textile enlisted by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage. It links Batik production with Tourism and Fashion in Indonesia
* ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73820 Batiks, and how to make them]'' (1919) by Pieter Mijer through New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, Inc.

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[[Category:Batik|Batik]]
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