Editing Battle of Hastings

{{Short description|Battle between English and Normans in 1066}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
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{{Use British English|date=June 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| image             = Bayeux Tapestry scene57 Harold death.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| partof            = the [[Norman Conquest]]
| caption           = ''Harold Rex Interfectus Est'': "King [[Harold Godwinson|Harold]] is killed". Scene from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicting the Battle of Hastings and the death of Harold.
| conflict          = Battle of Hastings
| date              = 14 October 1066
| place             = [[Rape of Hastings|Hailesaltede]], near [[Hastings]], Sussex, England (today [[Battle, East Sussex]], United Kingdom)
| result            = Norman victory
| combatant1        = [[Duchy of Normandy]]
| combatant2        = [[Kingdom of England]]
| commander1        = [[William the Conqueror|William of Normandy]]<br />[[Alan Rufus|Alan the Red]]<br />[[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William fitzOsbern]]<br />[[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne]]
| commander2        = [[Harold Godwinson]]{{KIA}}<br />[[Gyrth Godwinson]]{{KIA}}<br />[[Leofwine Godwinson]]{{KIA}}
| strength1         = Unknown, estimates range from 7,000 to 12,000
| strength2         = Unknown, estimates range from 5,000 to 13,000
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Norman Conquest}}
{{Location map many | United Kingdom East Sussex
| width = 308
| float = right
| caption = Site of the Battle of Hastings in East Sussex
| label1 = Battle
| label1_size = 100
| mark1 = Battle icon active (crossed swords).svg
| mark1size = 20
| lat1_deg = 50.914507
| lon1_deg = 0.487790
<!-- Hastings -->
| label2 = Hastings
| label2_size = 75
| position2 = right
| lat2_deg = 50.8563015
| lon2_deg = 0.5728745
<!-- Eastbourne -->
| label3 = Eastbourne
| label3_size = 75
| position3 = bottom
| mark3 = Black pog.svg
| lat3_deg = 50.77
| lon3_deg = 0.28
<!-- Rye -->
| label4 = Rye
| label4_size = 75
| position4 = right
| mark4 = Black pog.svg
| lat4_deg = 50.95
| lon4_deg = 0.73
<!-- Newhaven -->
| label5 = Newhaven
| label5_size = 75
| position5 = top
| mark5 = Black pog.svg
| lat5_deg = 50.80
| lon5_deg = 0.06
<!-- Lewes -->
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| label6_size = 75
| position6 = left
| mark6 = Black pog.svg
| lat6_deg = 50.875627
| lon6_deg = 0.017855
<!-- Crowborough -->
| label7 = Crowborough
| label7_size = 75
| position7 = right
| mark7 = Black pog.svg
| lat7_deg = 51.06
| lon7_deg = 0.16
<!-- Hailsham -->
| label8 = Hailsham
| label8_size = 75
| position8 = bottom
| mark8 = Black pog.svg
| lat8_deg = 50.86
| lon8_deg = 0.26
<!-- Bexhill-on-Sea -->
| label9 = Bexhill-on-Sea
| label9_size = 75
| position9 = bottom
| mark9 = Black pog.svg
| lat9_deg = 50.85
| lon9_deg = 0.47
<!-- Heathfield -->
| label10 = Heathfield
| label10_size = 75
| position10 = bottom
| mark10 = Black pog.svg
| lat10_deg = 50.97
| lon10_deg = 0.26
<!-- Uckfield -->
| label11 = Uckfield
| label11_size = 75
| position11 = left
| mark11 = Black pog.svg
| lat11_deg = 50.97
| lon11_deg = 0.
<!-- Seaford -->
| label12 = Seaford
| label12_size = 75
| position12 = bottom
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| lat12_deg = 50.77
| lon12_deg = 0.10
<!-- Peacehaven -->
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| lat13_deg = 50.80
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}}
}}

The '''Battle of Hastings'''{{efn|{{langx|ang|Gefeoht æt Hæstingum}} {{langx|nrf|Batâle dé Hastings}}}} was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of [[William the Conqueror|William, Duke of Normandy]], and an English army under the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] King [[Harold Godwinson]], beginning the [[Norman Conquest]] of [[England]]. It took place approximately {{convert|7|mi|km|abbr=on}} northwest of [[Hastings]], close to the present-day town of [[Battle, East Sussex]], and was a decisive [[Normans|Norman]] victory.

The background to the battle was the death of the childless King [[Edward the Confessor]] in January 1066, which set up a succession struggle between several claimants to his throne. Harold was crowned king shortly after Edward's death but faced invasions by William, his own brother [[Tostig Godwinson|Tostig]], and the Norwegian king [[Harald Hardrada]] (Harold III of Norway). Hardrada and Tostig defeated a hastily gathered army of Englishmen at the [[Battle of Fulford]] on 20 September 1066. They were in turn defeated by Harold at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] on 25 September. The deaths of Tostig and Hardrada at Stamford Bridge left William as Harold's only serious opponent. While Harold and his forces were recovering, William landed his invasion forces in the south of England at [[Pevensey]] on 28 September and established a beachhead for his conquest of the kingdom. Harold was forced to march south swiftly, gathering forces as he went.

The numbers present at the battle are unknown as even modern estimates vary considerably. The composition of the forces is clearer: the English army was composed almost entirely of infantry and had few archers, whereas only about half of the invading force was infantry, the rest split equally between cavalry and archers. Harold appears to have tried to surprise William, but scouts found his army and reported its arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from about 9&nbsp;am to dusk. Early efforts of the invaders to break the English battle lines had little effect. Therefore, the Normans adopted the tactic of pretending to flee in panic and then turning on their pursuers. Harold's death, probably near the end of the battle, led to the retreat and defeat of most of his army. After further marching and some skirmishes, William was crowned as king on Christmas Day 1066.

There continued to be rebellions and resistance to William's rule, but Hastings effectively marked the culmination of William's conquest of England. Casualty figures are difficult to assess, but some historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died along with about twice that number of Englishmen. William founded [[Battle Abbey|a monastery]] at the site of the battle, the high altar of the abbey church supposedly placed at the spot where Harold died.

==Background==
In 911, the [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian]] ruler [[Charles the Simple]] allowed a group of [[Vikings]] to settle in [[Normandy]] under their leader [[Rollo]].<ref name=Bates8>Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 8–10</ref> Their settlement proved successful,<ref name=Normans15/>{{efn|The Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen", from which "Normandy" and "Normans" are derived.<ref name=Normans15>Crouch ''Normans'' pp. 15–16</ref>}} and they quickly adapted to the indigenous culture, renouncing [[paganism]], converting to [[Christianity]],<ref name=Bates12>Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' p. 12</ref> and intermarrying with the local population.<ref name=Bates20>Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 20–21</ref> Over time, the frontiers of the duchy expanded to the west.<ref name=Capet53>Hallam and Everard ''Capetian France'' p. 53</ref> In 1002, King [[Æthelred the Unready|Æthelred II]] married [[Emma of Normandy|Emma]], the sister of [[Richard II, Duke of Normandy]].<ref name=Unready54>Williams ''Æthelred the Unready'' p. 54</ref> Their son [[Edward the Confessor]] spent many years in exile in Normandy and succeeded to the English throne in 1042.<ref name=Ruling3>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 3</ref> This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Edward was childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]], and his sons, and he may also have encouraged Duke [[William the Conqueror|William of Normandy]]'s ambitions for the English throne.<ref name=Unification86>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 86–99</ref>

===Succession crisis in England===
King Edward's death on 5 January 1066<ref name=Handbook29>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 29</ref>{{efn|There is some slight confusion in the original sources about the exact date; it was most likely 5 January, but a few contemporaneous sources give 4 January.<ref name=Edward250>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 250 and footnote 1</ref>}} left no clear heir, and several contenders laid claim to the throne of England.<ref name=Death167>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 167–181</ref> Edward's immediate successor was the [[Earl of Wessex]], [[Harold Godwinson]], the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats and son of [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex|Godwin]], Edward's earlier opponent. Harold was elected king by the [[Witenagemot]] of England and crowned by [[Ealdred (archbishop of York)|Ealdred]], the [[Archbishop of York]], although Norman propaganda claimed that the ceremony was performed by [[Stigand]], the uncanonically elected [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref name=Death167/><ref name=Walker136>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 136–138</ref> Harold was at once challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William claimed that he had been promised the throne by Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this.<ref name=BatesWilliam73>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 73–77</ref> [[Harald Hardrada]], King of Norway, also contested the succession; his claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor [[Magnus the Good]] and the earlier king of England [[Harthacnut]], whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway.<ref name=Death188>Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 188–190</ref> William and Harald Hardrada immediately set about assembling troops and ships for separate invasions.<ref name=Ruling12>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 12–14</ref>{{efn|Other contenders later came to the fore. The first was [[Edgar Ætheling]], Edward the Confessor's great nephew who was a patrilineal descendant of King [[Edmund Ironside]]. He was the son of Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, and was born in Hungary where his father had fled after the conquest of England by [[Cnut the Great]]. After his family's eventual return to England and his father's death in 1057,<ref name=Huscroft96>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 96–97</ref> Edgar had by far the strongest hereditary claim to the throne, but he was only about thirteen or fourteen at the time of Edward the Confessor's death, and with little family to support him, his claim was passed over by the [[Witenagemot|Witenaġemot]].<ref name=Huscroft132>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 132–133</ref> Another contender was [[Sweyn II of Denmark]], who had a claim to the throne as the grandson of [[Sweyn Forkbeard]] and nephew of [[Canute the Great|Cnut]],<ref name=Stafford86>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 86–87</ref> but he did not make his bid for the throne until 1069.<ref name=Bates103>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 103–104</ref> [[Tostig Godwinson]]'s attacks in early 1066 may have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but threw in his lot with Harald Hardrada after defeat at the hands of [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Edwin]] and [[Morcar]] and the desertion of most of his followers he.<ref name=Thomas33>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 33–34</ref>}}

===Tostig and Hardrada's invasions===
In early 1066, Harold's exiled brother [[Tostig Godwinson]] raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in [[Flanders]], later joined by other ships from [[Orkney]]. Threatened by Harold's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in [[East Anglia]] and [[Lincolnshire]]. He was driven back to his ships by the brothers [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia]] and [[Morcar|Morcar, Earl of Northumbria]]. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the middle of the year recruiting fresh forces.<ref name=Harold144>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 144–145</ref> Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Hardrada's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who supported the Norwegian king's bid for the throne. Advancing on [[York]], the Norwegians occupied the city after defeating a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the [[Battle of Fulford]].<ref name=Harold154>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 154–158</ref>

==English army and Harold's preparations==
[[File:Battle Flat - geograph.org.uk - 285158.jpg|thumb|The location of the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]]]]
The English army was organised along regional lines, with the ''[[fyrd]]'', or local levy, serving under a local magnate&nbsp;– whether an [[earl]], bishop or [[sheriff]].<ref name=Source69/> The ''fyrd'' was composed of men who owned their own land and who were equipped by their community to fulfil the king's demands for military forces. For every five [[hide (unit)|hides]],<ref name=Marren55/> or units of land nominally capable of supporting one household,<ref name=Dict154>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases'' p. 154</ref> one man was supposed to serve.<ref name=Marren55>Marren ''1066'' pp. 55–57</ref> It appears that the [[Hundred (county division)|hundred]] was the main organising unit for the ''fyrd''.<ref name=Gravett28/> As a whole, England could furnish about 14,000 men for the ''fyrd'' when it was called out. The ''fyrd'' usually served for two months, except in emergencies. It was rare for the whole national ''fyrd'' to be called out; between 1046 and 1065 it was only done three times, in 1051, 1052, and 1065.<ref name=Marren55/> The king also had a group of personal armsmen, known as [[housecarl]]s, who formed the backbone of the royal forces. Some earls also had their own forces of housecarls. [[Thegn]]s, the local landowning elites, either fought with the royal housecarls or attached themselves to the forces of an earl or other magnate.<ref name=Source69>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Sourcebook'' pp. 69–71</ref> The ''fyrd'' and the housecarls both fought on foot, with the major difference between them being the housecarls' superior armour. The English army does not appear to have had a significant number of archers.<ref name=Gravett28>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 28–34</ref>

Harold had spent mid-1066 on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade. The bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed the militia and the fleet.<ref name=Harold145>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 144–150</ref> Learning of the Norwegian invasion he rushed north, gathering forces as he went, and took the Norwegians by surprise, defeating them at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] on 25 September. Harald Hardrada and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such great losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory came at great cost, as Harold's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the south.<ref name=Harold158>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 158–165</ref>

==William's preparations and landing==
[[File:Pevensey Castle aerial alt.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|left|On landing at [[Pevensey]], William established a [[Pevensey Castle|castle]] within the ruins of the Roman fort. While the outermost walls date from the Roman period, the surviving buildings of the inner bailey post-date William.<ref>Porter ''Pevensey Castle'' pp. 4, 26–27</ref>]]
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and the rest of France, including large contingents from [[Brittany]] and [[Flanders]].<ref name=Bates79/> He spent almost nine months on his preparations, as he had to assemble a fleet from nothing.{{efn|The surviving ship list gives 776 ships, contributed by 14 different Norman nobles.<ref name=Gravett20/> This list does not include William's flagship, the ''Mora'', given to him by his wife, [[Matilda of Flanders]]. The ''Mora'' is depicted on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] with a lion figurehead.<ref name=Marren91/>}} According to some Norman chronicles, he also secured diplomatic support, although the accuracy of the reports has been a matter of historical debate. The most famous claim is that Pope [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]] gave a papal banner as a token of support, which only appears in [[William of Poitiers]]'s account, and not in more contemporary narratives.<ref name=Huscroft120>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 120–122</ref> In April 1066 [[Halley's Comet]] appeared in the sky and was widely reported throughout Europe. Contemporary accounts connected the comet's appearance with the succession crisis in England.<ref name=Douglas181>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 181 and footnote 1</ref>{{efn|The comet's appearance was depicted on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], where it is connected with Harold's coronation, although the appearance of the comet was later, from 24 April to 1 May 1066. The image on the tapestry is the earliest pictorial depiction of Halley's Comet to survive.<ref name=Tapestry176>Musset ''Bayeux Tapestry'' p. 176</ref>}}

William mustered his forces at [[Saint-Valery-sur-Somme]] and was ready to cross the [[English Channel]] by about 12 August,<ref name=Douglas192>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 192</ref> but the crossing was delayed, either because of unfavourable weather or to avoid being intercepted by the powerful English fleet. The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force, and landed at [[Pevensey]] in Sussex on 28 September.<ref name=Bates79/>{{efn|Most modern historians agree on this date,<ref name=Gravett50>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 50</ref><ref name=Huscroft123>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 123</ref><ref name=Feudal81>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' p. 81</ref><ref name=Stenton591>Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 591</ref><ref name=Thomas35>Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 35</ref><ref name=Douglas195>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 195</ref> although a few contemporary sources have William landing on 29 September.<ref name=Lawson176>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 176</ref>}}{{efn|Most contemporary accounts have William landing at Pevensey, with only the [[Peterborough Chronicle|E version]] of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' giving the landing as taking place at Hastings.<ref name=Lawson176/> Most modern accounts also state that William's forces landed at Pevensey.<ref name=Marren91>Marren ''1066'' pp. 91–92</ref><ref name=Huscroft123/><ref name=Feudal81/><ref name=Stenton591/><ref name=Thomas35/><ref name=Bennett37>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 37</ref><ref name=Gravett47>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 47–49</ref><ref name=Ruling15>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 15</ref><ref name=Stafford100>Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 100</ref><ref name=Bates86>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 86</ref><ref name=Walker166>Walker ''Harold'' p. 166</ref><ref name=Rex221>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 221</ref> }} A few ships were blown off course and landed at [[Romney Marsh|Romney]], where the Normans fought the local ''fyrd''.<ref name=Marren91/> After landing, William's forces built a wooden castle at [[Hastings]], from which they raided the surrounding area.<ref name=Bates79>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 79–89</ref> More fortifications were erected at Pevensey.<ref name=Lawson179>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 179</ref>

===Norman forces at Hastings===
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene51 Battle of Hastings Norman knights and archers.jpg|thumb|upright=1.9|Norman knights and archers at the Battle of Hastings, as depicted in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]

The exact numbers and composition of William's force are unknown.<ref name=Gravett20>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 20–21</ref> A contemporary document claims that William had 776 ships, but this may be an inflated figure.<ref name=Bennett25>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 25</ref> Figures given by contemporary writers for the size of the army are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000.<ref name=Lawson163>Lawson ''Hastings'' pp. 163–164</ref> Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William's forces: 7000–8000 men including 1000–2000 cavalry;<ref name=Bennet26>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 26</ref> 10,000–12,000 men;<ref name=Lawson163/> 10,000 men including 3000 cavalry;<ref name=Marren89>Marren ''1066'' pp. 89–90</ref> or 7500 men.<ref name="Gravett20"/> The army consisted of about one-half infantry, one-quarter cavalry, and one-quarter archers or crossbowmen.<ref name=Gravett27>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 27</ref> Later lists of [[companions of William the Conqueror]] are extant, but most are padded with extra names; only about 35 named individuals can be reliably identified as having been with William at Hastings.<ref name="Gravett20"/><ref name=Marren108>Marren ''1066'' pp. 108–109</ref>{{efn|Of those 35, 5 are known to have died in the battle: Robert of Vitot, Engenulf of Laigle, Robert fitzErneis, Roger son of Turold, and Taillefer.<ref name=Marren107>Marren ''1066'' pp. 107–108</ref>}}

The main armour was chainmail [[Hauberk|hauberks]], usually knee-length, with slits to allow riding, some with sleeves to the elbows. Some hauberks may have been made of scales attached to a tunic, with the scales made of metal, horn or hardened leather. Headgear was usually a conical metal helmet with a vertical band guarding the bridge of the nose.<ref name=Gravett15>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 15–19</ref> Cavalry and infantry carried shields. The infantryman's shield was usually round and made of wood with metal reinforcement. Horsemen used a kite-shaped shield and were usually armed with a [[lance]]. The couched lance, carried tucked against the body under the right arm, was relatively new and probably not used at Hastings, as the terrain was unfavourable for long cavalry charges. Both infantry and cavalry usually fought with a straight sword, long and double-edged. The infantry could also use javelins and long spears.<ref name=Gravett22>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 22</ref> Some of the cavalry may have used a mace instead of a sword. Archers would have used a [[self bow]] or a [[crossbow]], and most would not have had armour.<ref name=Gravett24>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 24–25</ref>

==Harold moves south==
After defeating Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, Harold left much of his forces in the north, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.<ref name=Carpenter72>Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 72</ref> It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but it was probably during the march. Harold stopped in London for about a week before Hastings, so he likely spent about a week on his march south, averaging about {{convert|27|mi|km|abbr=on}} per day,<ref name=Marren93>Marren ''1066'' p. 93</ref> for the approximately {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Huscroft124>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 124</ref> Harold camped at Caldbec Hill on the night of 13 October, near a "hoar-apple tree", about {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}} from William's castle at Hastings.<ref name=Marren94>Marren ''1066'' pp. 94–95</ref>{{efn|"Hoar" means grey, and probably refers to a crab-apple tree covered with lichen that was likely a local landmark.<ref name=Marren94/>}} Some of the early contemporary French accounts mention an emissary or emissaries sent by Harold to William, which is likely, though nothing came of it.<ref name=Lawson180/>

Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William's army advanced from his castle towards the enemy.<ref name=Lawson180>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 180–182</ref> Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of [[Senlac Hill]] (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on}} from William's castle at Hastings.<ref name=Marren99>Marren ''1066'' pp. 99–100</ref>

===English forces at Hastings===
The number of soldiers in Harold's army at Hastings is unknown, as contemporary records do not give reliable figures. Some Norman sources give 400,000 to 1,200,000 on Harold's side,{{efn|The 400,000 figure is given in [[Wace]]'s ''Romance de Rou'' and the 1,200,000 figure coming from the ''[[Carmen de Hastingae Proelio]]''.<ref name=Lawson128fn>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 128 footnote 32</ref>}} while English sources seem to underestimate Harold's army, perhaps to make the English defeat seem less devastating.<ref name=Lawson128>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 128 and footnote 32</ref> Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13,000,<ref name=Lawson130>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 130–133</ref> while most argue for a figure of 7000–8000 English troops.<ref name="Gravett28" /><ref name=Marren105>Marren ''1066'' p. 105</ref> These men would have been a mix of the ''fyrd'' and housecarls. Few individual Englishmen are known to have been present;<ref name="Gravett20" /> about 20 named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings, including Harold's brothers [[Gyrth Godwinson|Gyrth]] and [[Leofwine Godwinson|Leofwine]] and two other relatives.<ref name="Marren107" />{{efn|Of these named persons, eight died in the battle&nbsp;– Harold, Gyrth, Leofwine, Godric the sheriff, Thurkill of Berkshire, Breme, and someone known only as "son of Helloc".<ref name="Marren107"/>}}

[[File:Bayeuxtapestryscene52.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting mounted Norman soldiers attacking Anglo-Saxons who are fighting on foot in a shield wall]]

The English army consisted entirely of infantry. It is possible that some of the higher-class members of the army rode to battle but then dismounted when battle was joined to fight on foot.{{efn|Some historians have argued, based on comments by [[Snorri Sturlson]] made in the 13th century, that the English army did occasionally fight as [[cavalry]]. Contemporary accounts, such as in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' record that when English soldiers were forced to fight on horseback, they were usually routed, as in 1055 near Hereford.<ref name=Gravett29/>}} The core of the army was made up of housecarls, full-time professional soldiers. Their armour consisted of a conical helmet, a mail hauberk, and a shield, which might be either kite-shaped or round.<ref name=Gravett29>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 29–31</ref> Most housecarls fought with the two-handed [[Dane axe|Danish battleaxe]], but they could also carry a sword.<ref name=Marren52>Marren ''1066'' p. 52</ref> The rest of the army was made up of levies from the ''fyrd'', also infantry but more lightly armoured and not professionals. Most of the infantry would have formed part of the [[shield wall]], in which the front ranks locked their shields together. Behind them would have been axemen and javelins as well as archers.<ref name=Fighting21>Bennett, ''et al''. ''Fighting Techniques'' pp. 21–22</ref>

==Battle==

===Background and location===
[[File:Schlachtfeld Schlacht bei Hastings juni09.JPG|thumb|The battlefield from the north side]]
Because many of the primary accounts contradict each other at times, it is impossible to provide an authoritative description of the battle.<ref name=Lawson183>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 183–184</ref> The only undisputed facts are that fighting began at 9&nbsp;am Saturday 14 October 1066 and that the battle lasted until dusk.<ref name=Marren114>Marren ''1066'' p. 114</ref> Sunset on the day of the battle was at 4:54&nbsp;pm, with the battlefield mostly dark by 5:54&nbsp;pm and in full darkness by 6:24&nbsp;pm. Moonrise that night was not until 11:12&nbsp;pm, so once the sun set, there was little light on the battlefield.<ref name=Lawson212>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 212–213</ref> [[William of Jumièges]] reports that William kept his army armed and ready against a surprise attack for the entire night before.<ref name=Lawson183/> The battle took place {{convert|7|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Hastings at the present-day town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]],<ref name=Gravett91>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 91</ref> between two hills&nbsp;– Caldbec Hill to the north and Telham Hill to the south. The area was heavily wooded, with a marsh nearby.<ref name=Marren101>Marren ''1066'' p. 101</ref> The name traditionally given to the battle is unusual&nbsp;– there were several settlements much closer to the battlefield than Hastings. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' calls it the battle "at the hoary apple tree". Within 40 years, the battle was described by the Anglo-Norman chronicler [[Orderic Vitalis]] as "Senlac",{{efn|This was the name popularised by [[Edward Augustus Freeman|Edward Freeman]],<ref name=Lawson57/> a Victorian historian who wrote one of the definitive accounts of the battle.<ref name=Lawson129>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 129</ref>}} a Norman-French adaptation of the Old English word "Sandlacu", which means "sandy water".{{efn|"Sandlacu" can be rendered into Modern English as "sandlake".<ref name=Lawson57>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 57</ref>}} This may have been the name of the stream that crosses the battlefield.{{efn|Freeman suggested that "Senlac" meant "sand lake" in [[Old English]] with the Norman conquerors calling it (in French) "sanguelac". Freeman regarded this use as a pun because the English translation of "sanguelac" is "blood lake".<ref name=freeman745>Freeman ''History of the Norman Conquest'' pp. 743–751</ref>}} The battle was already being referred to as "bellum Haestingas" or "Battle of Hastings" by 1086, in the [[Domesday Book]].<ref name=Marren157>Marren ''1066'' p. 157</ref>

The sun rose at 6:48&nbsp;am that morning, with the day unusually bright.<ref name=Gravett59>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 59</ref> The weather conditions are not recorded.<ref name=Marren116/> The precise route of the English army southward to the battlefield is not known. Several roads are possible: one, an old Roman road that ran from Rochester to Hastings has long been favoured because of a large coin hoard found nearby in 1876. Another possibility is the Roman road between London and Lewes and then over local tracks to the battlefield.<ref name=Lawson183/> Some accounts of the battle indicate that the Normans advanced from Hastings to the battlefield, but the contemporary account of William of Jumièges places the Normans at the site of the battle the night before.<ref name=Lawson186>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 186–187</ref> Most historians incline towards the former view,<ref name=Marren99/><ref name=Gravett59/><ref name=Huscroft125>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 125–126</ref><ref name=Bennett40>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 40</ref> but M. K. Lawson argues that William of Jumièges's account is correct.<ref name=Lawson186/>

===Dispositions of forces and tactics===
[[File:Battle of Hastings, 1066.png|thumb|left|Battle dispositions]]
Harold's forces deployed in a small, dense formation at the top of a steep slope,<ref name=Gravett59/> with their flanks protected by woods and marshy ground in front of them.<ref name=Bennett40/> The line may have extended far enough to be anchored on a nearby stream.<ref name=Lawson190>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 190–191</ref> The English formed a shield wall, with the front ranks holding their shields close together or even overlapping to protect from attack.<ref name=Gravett64/> Sources differ on the exact site at which the English fought: some sources state the site of the abbey,<ref name=Hare84>Hare ''Battle Abbey'' p. 11</ref><ref name=EngHer05Oct2016>English Heritage ''Research on Battle Abbey and Battlefield''</ref><ref name=BattlefieldsTrust05Oct2016>Battlefields Trust ''Battle of Hastings''</ref> but some newer sources suggest it was Caldbec Hill.<ref name=Lawson190/><ref name=Gravett59/>

More is known about the Norman deployment.<ref name=Lawson192>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 192</ref> William appears to have arranged his forces in three groups, or "battles", which roughly corresponded to their origins. The left units were the [[Breton people|Bretons]],<ref name=Bennett41/> along with those from [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[Poitou]] and [[Maine (province)|Maine]]. This division was led by [[Alan Rufus|Alan the Red]], a relative of the Breton count.<ref name=Gravett64>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 64</ref> The centre was held by the Normans,<ref name=Bennett41/> under the direct command of William and with many of his relatives and kinsmen grouped around the ducal party.<ref name=Gravett64/> The final division, on the right, consisted of the Frenchmen,<ref name=Bennett41/> along with some men from [[Picardy]], [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]], and [[County of Flanders|Flanders]]. The right was commanded by [[William fitzOsbern]] and Count [[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne|Eustace II of Boulogne]].<ref name=Gravett64/> The front lines were made up of archers, with a line of foot soldiers armed with spears behind.<ref name=Bennett41/> There were probably a few crossbowmen and slingers in with the archers.<ref name=Gravett64/> The cavalry was held in reserve,<ref name=Bennett41>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 41</ref> and a small group of clergymen and servants situated at the base of Telham Hill was not expected to take part in the fighting.<ref name=Gravett64/>

William's disposition of his forces implies that he planned to open the battle with archers in the front rank weakening the enemy with arrows, followed by infantry who would engage in close combat. The infantry would create openings in the English lines that could be exploited by a cavalry charge to break through the English forces and pursue the fleeing soldiers.<ref name=Gravett64/>

===Beginning of the battle===
[[File:Hastingsbattlefieldandbattleabbeyruinsbeta.jpg|thumb|View of the battlefield looking towards [[Senlac Hill]]]]

The battle opened with the Norman archers shooting uphill at the English shield wall, to little effect. The uphill angle meant that the arrows either bounced off the shields of the English or overshot their targets and flew over the top of the hill.<ref name=Bennett41/>{{efn|There is a story that the first fighting at Hastings was between a [[jongleur]] named Taillefer and some of the English fighters which comes from three sources: the ''[[Carmen de Hastingae Proelio]]'', Wace's ''Romance de Rou'', and the 12th-century account of [[Henry of Huntingdon]].<ref name=Gravett64/> The story has two versions, in one of which Taillefer entertained the Norman army before the battle by juggling a sword but then killed an English soldier sent to kill him. Another version has the jongleur charging the English and killing two before dying himself.<ref name=Marren116>Marren ''1066'' p. 116</ref>}}  The lack of English archers hampered the Norman archers, as there were few English arrows to be gathered up and reused.<ref name=Gravett65>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 65–67</ref> After the attack from the archers, William sent the spearmen forward to attack the English. They were met with a barrage of spears, axes and stones.<ref name=Bennett41/> The infantry was unable to force openings in the shield wall, and the cavalry advanced in support.<ref name=Gravett65/> The cavalry also failed to make headway, and a general retreat began, blamed on the Breton division on William's left.<ref name=Bennett42>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 42</ref> A rumour started that William had been killed, which added to the confusion. The English forces began to pursue the fleeing invaders, but William rode through his forces, showing his face and yelling that he was still alive.<ref name=Gravett68>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 68</ref> He then led a counter-attack against the pursuing English forces; some of the English rallied on a hillock before being overwhelmed.<ref name=Bennett42/>

It is not known whether the English pursuit was ordered by Harold or if it was spontaneous. The 12th-century chronicler [[Wace]] relates that Harold ordered his men to stay in their formations, but no other account gives this detail. The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts the death of Gyrth and Leofwine occurring just before the fight around the hillock. This may mean that the two brothers led the pursuit.<ref name=Gravett72>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 72–73</ref> The ''[[Carmen de Hastingae Proelio]]'' relates a different story for the death of Gyrth, stating that William slew him in combat, perhaps thinking that Gyrth was Harold. William of Poitiers states that the bodies of Gyrth and Leofwine were found near Harold's, implying that they died late in the battle. It is possible that if the two brothers died early in the fighting their bodies were taken to Harold, thus accounting for their being found near his body after the battle. The military historian [[Peter Marren]] speculates that if Gyrth and Leofwine died early in the battle, that may have influenced Harold to stand and fight to the end.<ref name=Marren127>Marren ''1066'' pp. 127–128</ref>

===Feigned flights===
[[File:Bayeuxtapestryscene53.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing mounted Norman cavalrymen fighting Anglo-Saxon infantry]]
A lull probably occurred early in the afternoon, and a break for rest and food would probably have been needed.<ref name=Gravett72/> William may have also needed time to implement a new strategy, which may have been inspired by the English pursuit and subsequent rout by the Normans. If the Normans could send their cavalry against the shield wall and then draw the English into more pursuits, breaks in the English line might form.<ref name=Bennett43>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 43</ref> William of Poitiers says the tactic was used twice. Although arguments have been made that the chroniclers' accounts of this tactic were meant to excuse the flight of the Norman troops from battle, this is unlikely as the earlier flight was not glossed over. It was a tactic used by other Norman armies during the period.<ref name=Gravett72/>{{efn|Examples of the use of feigned flight include the [[Battle of Arques (1052)|Battle of Arques]] around 1052, the [[Battle of Messina (1060)|Battle of Messina]] in 1060, and the [[Battle of Cassel (1071)|Battle of Cassel]] in 1071.<ref name=Gravett72/>}} Some historians have argued that the story of the use of [[Feigned retreat|feigned flight]] as a deliberate tactic was invented after the battle; however most historians agree that it was used by the Normans at Hastings.<ref name=Marren130>Marren ''1066'' p. 130</ref>

Although the feigned flights did not break the lines, they probably thinned out the housecarls in the English shield wall. The housecarls were replaced with members of the ''fyrd'', and the shield wall held.<ref name=Gravett72/> Archers appear to have been used again before and during an assault by the cavalry and infantry led by William. Although 12th-century sources state that the archers were ordered to shoot at a high angle to shoot over the front of the shield wall, there is no trace of such an action in the more contemporary accounts.<ref name=Gravett76>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 76–78</ref> It is not known how many assaults were launched against the English lines, but some sources record various actions by both Normans and Englishmen that took place during the afternoon's fighting.<ref name=Marren131>Marren ''1066'' pp. 131–133</ref> The ''Carmen'' claims that William had two horses killed under him during the fighting, but William of Poitiers's account states that it was three.<ref name=Marren135>Marren ''1066'' p. 135</ref>

===Death of Harold===
[[File:Harold stone.JPG|thumb|right|Stone marking the spot of the high altar at [[Battle Abbey]], where Harold died<ref name=Gravett79>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 79</ref>]]

Harold appears to have died late in the battle, although accounts in the various sources are contradictory. William of Poitiers only mentions his death, without giving any details on how it occurred. The Bayeux Tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow sticking out of his eye next to a falling fighter being hit with a sword. Over both figures is a statement "Here King Harold has been killed".<ref name=Gravett76/> It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold, or if both are meant.<ref name=Lawson207>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 207–210</ref>{{efn|The issue is further confused by the fact that there is evidence that the 19th-century restoration of the Tapestry changed the scene by inserting or changing the placement of the arrow through the eye.<ref name=Lawson207/>}} The earliest written mention of the traditional account of Harold dying from an arrow to the eye dates to the 1080s from a history of the Normans written by an Italian monk, [[Amatus of Montecassino]].<ref name=Marren138>Marren ''1066'' p. 138</ref>{{efn|Amatus' account is less than trustworthy because it also states that Duke William commanded 100,000 soldiers at Hastings.<ref name=Rex256/>}} [[William of Malmesbury]] states that Harold died from an arrow to the eye that went into the brain and that a knight wounded Harold at the same time. Wace repeats the arrow-to-the-eye account. The ''Carmen'' states that William killed Harold, but this is unlikely, as such a feat would have been recorded elsewhere.<ref name=Gravett76/> The account of William of Jumièges is even more unlikely, as it has Harold dying in the morning, during the first fighting. The ''Chronicle of Battle Abbey'' states that no one knew who killed Harold, as it happened in the press of battle.<ref name=Marren137>Marren ''1066'' p. 137</ref> A modern biographer of Harold, Ian Walker, states that Harold probably died from an arrow in the eye, although he also says it is possible that Harold was struck down by a Norman knight while mortally wounded in the eye.<ref name=Walker179>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 179–180</ref> Another biographer of Harold, Peter Rex, after discussing the various accounts, concludes that it is not possible to declare how Harold died.<ref name=Rex256>Rex ''Harold II'' pp. 256–263</ref>

Harold's death left the English forces leaderless, and they began to collapse.<ref name=Bennett43/> Many of them fled, but the soldiers of the royal household gathered around Harold's body and fought to the end.<ref name=Gravett76/> The Normans began to pursue the fleeing troops, and except for a rearguard action at a site known as the "Malfosse", the battle was over.<ref name=Bennett43/> Exactly what happened at the Malfosse, or "Evil Ditch", and where it took place, are unclear. It occurred at a small fortification or set of trenches where some Englishmen rallied and seriously wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.<ref name=Gravett80>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 80</ref>

===Reasons for the outcome===

Harold's defeat was probably due to several circumstances. One was the need to defend against two almost simultaneous invasions. Harold's dismissal of his forces in southern England on 8 September also contributed to the defeat. Many historians fault Harold for hurrying south and not gathering more forces before confronting William at Hastings, although it is not clear that the English forces were insufficient to deal with William's forces.<ref name=Lawson217/> However, the length of the battle, which lasted an entire day, shows that the English forces were not tired by their long march.<ref name=Huscroft130>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 130</ref> Tied in with the speed of Harold's advance to Hastings is the possibility Harold may not have trusted Edwin and Morcar once Tostig had been defeated, and declined to bring them and their forces south.<ref name=Lawson217/> Modern historians have pointed out that one reason for Harold's rush to battle was to contain William's depredations and keep him from breaking free of his [[beachhead]].<ref name=Marren152>Marren ''1066'' p. 152</ref>

Most of the blame for the defeat probably lies in the events of the battle.<ref name=Lawson217>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 217–218</ref> William was the more experienced military leader,<ref name=Lawson219/> and in addition, the lack of cavalry on the English side allowed Harold fewer tactical options.<ref name=Huscroft130/> Some writers have criticised Harold for not exploiting the opportunity offered by the rumoured death of William early in the battle.<ref name=Walker180>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 180–181</ref> The English appear to have erred in not staying strictly on the defensive, for when they pursued the retreating Normans they exposed their flanks to attack. Whether this was due to the inexperience of the English commanders or the indiscipline of the English soldiers is unclear.<ref name=Lawson219>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 219–220</ref>{{efn|Modern [[wargaming]] has demonstrated the correctness of not pursuing the fleeing Normans,<ref name=Marren152/> with the historian [[Christopher Gravett]] stating that if in a wargame he allowed Harold to pursue the Normans, his opponent "promptly, and rightly, punished such rashness with a brisk counter-attack with proved to be the turning point of the battle&nbsp;– just as in 1066".<ref name=QMarren152>Quoted in Marren ''1066'' p. 152</ref>}} In the end, Harold's death appears to have been decisive, as it signalled the break-up of the English forces in disarray.<ref name=Huscroft130/> Historian [[David Nicolle]] states that William's army "demonstrated&nbsp;– not without difficulty&nbsp;– the superiority of Norman-French mixed cavalry and infantry tactics over the Germanic-Scandinavian infantry traditions of the Anglo-Saxons."<ref name=Normans20>Nicolle ''Normans'' p. 20</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{See also|Norman conquest of England#Consequences}}
[[File:Battleabbey-wyrdlight-0190.jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of the monks' dormitory at Battle Abbey]]
The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armour or by marks on his body.{{efn|A 12th-century tradition stated that Harold's face could not be recognised and [[Edith the Fair]], Harold's [[Common-law marriage|common-law wife]], was brought to the battlefield to identify his body from marks that only she knew.<ref name="Gravett80" />}}  His personal standard was presented to William<ref name=Rex253>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 253</ref> and later sent to the papacy.<ref name=Gravett76/> The bodies of the English dead, including some of Harold's brothers and housecarls, were left on the battlefield,<ref name=Huscroft131/> although some were removed by relatives later.<ref name=Gravett81>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 81</ref> The Norman dead were buried in a large communal grave, which has not been found.<ref name=Marren146/>{{efn|It is possible the grave site was located where the abbey now stands.<ref name=Marren146/>}} Casualty figures are unknown. Of the Englishmen known to be at the battle, the number of dead implies that the death rate was about 50 per cent of those engaged, although this may be too high. Of the named Normans who fought at Hastings, one in seven is stated to have died, but these were all noblemen, and the death rate among the common soldiers was probably higher. Although Orderic Vitalis's figures are highly exaggerated,{{efn|He states that there were 15,000 casualties out of 60,000 who fought on William's side at the battle.<ref name=Marren147/>}} his ratio of one in four casualties may be accurate. Marren speculates that perhaps 2,000 Normans and 4,000 Englishmen were killed at Hastings.<ref name=Marren147>Marren ''1066'' pp. 147–149</ref> Reports stated that some of the English dead were still being found on the hillside years later. Although scholars thought for a long time that remains would not be recoverable, due to the acidic soil, recent finds have changed this view.<ref name=past6>Livesay "Skeleton 180 Shock Dating Result" ''Sussex Past and Present'' p. 6</ref> One skeleton that was found in a medieval cemetery, and originally was thought to be associated with the 13th century [[Battle of Lewes]], now is thought to be associated with Hastings instead.<ref name=sac148>Barber and Sibun "Medieval Hospital of St Nicholas" ''Sussex Archaeological Collections'' pp. 79–109</ref>{{efn|This skeleton, numbered 180, sustained six fatal sword cuts to the back of the skull and was one of five skeletons that had suffered violent trauma. Analysis continues on the other remains to try to build up a more accurate picture of who the individuals are.<ref name="past6"/>}}

One story relates that [[Gytha Thorkelsdóttir|Gytha]], Harold's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son's body in gold for its custody but was refused. William ordered that Harold's body be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear.<ref name=Huscroft131/> Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff.<ref name=Marren146>Marren ''1066'' p. 146</ref> [[Waltham Abbey Church|Waltham Abbey]], which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been secretly buried there.<ref name=Huscroft131>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 131</ref> Other legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings but escaped and became a hermit at Chester.<ref name=Gravett81/>

[[File:BattleNormannen.JPG|thumb|right|[[Battle of Hastings reenactment|Reenactment]] in front of [[Battle Abbey]]]]

William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders after his victory, but instead [[Edgar Ætheling]]{{efn|Ætheling is the Anglo-Saxon term for a royal prince with some claim to the throne.<ref name=Bennett91>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 91</ref>}} was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and [[Ealdred (archbishop of York)|Ealdred]], the Archbishop of York.<ref name=Douglas204>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 204–205</ref> William therefore advanced on London, marching around the coast of [[Kent]]. He defeated an English force that attacked him at [[Southwark]] but was unable to storm [[London Bridge]], forcing him to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.<ref name=Douglas205>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 205–206</ref>

William moved up the [[River Thames|Thames]] valley to cross the river at [[Wallingford, Oxfordshire|Wallingford]], where he received the submission of Stigand. He then travelled north-east along the [[Chilterns]], before advancing towards London from the north-west,{{efn|William appears to have taken this route to meet up with reinforcements that had landed by Portsmouth and met him between London and Winchester. By swinging around to the north, William cut off London from reinforcements.<ref name=Bennett45>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 45</ref>}} fighting further engagements against forces from the city. The English leaders surrendered to William at [[Berkhamsted]], Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name=Douglas205/>

Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years.<ref name=Douglas212>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 212</ref> There were rebellions in Exeter in late 1067, an invasion by Harold's sons in mid-1068, and an uprising in Northumbria in 1068.<ref name=Bennett49>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' pp. 49–50</ref> In 1069 William faced more troubles from Northumbrian rebels, an invading Danish fleet, and rebellions in the south and west of England. He ruthlessly put down the various risings, culminating in the [[Harrying of the North]] in late 1069 and early 1070 that devastated parts of northern England.<ref name=Bennett51>Bennett, ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'', pp. 51–53</ref> A further rebellion in 1070 by [[Hereward the Wake]] was also defeated by the king, at Ely.<ref name=Bennett57>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' pp. 57–60</ref>

[[Battle Abbey]] was founded by William at the site of the battle. According to 12th-century sources, William made a vow to found the abbey, and the high altar of the church was placed at the site where Harold had died.<ref name=Bennett43/> More likely, the foundation was imposed on William by [[papal legate]]s in 1070.<ref name=Coad32>Coad ''Battle Abbey and Battlefield'' p. 32</ref> The topography of the battlefield has been altered by subsequent construction work for the abbey, and the slope defended by the English is now much less steep than it was at the time of the battle; the top of the ridge has also been built up and levelled.<ref name=Gravett91/> After the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the abbey's lands passed to secular landowners who used it as a residence or country house.<ref name=Coad42>Coad ''Battle Abbey and Battlefield'' pp. 42–46</ref> In 1976 the estate was put up for sale and purchased by the government with the aid of some American donors who wished to honour the 200th anniversary of American independence.<ref name=Coad48>Coad ''Battle Abbey and Battlefield'' p. 48</ref> The battlefield and abbey grounds are currently owned and administered by [[English Heritage]] and are open to the public.<ref name=Marren165>Marren ''1066'' p. 165</ref>

The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered narrative of the events leading up to Hastings probably commissioned by [[Odo of Bayeux]] soon after the battle, perhaps to hang at the bishop's palace at Bayeux.<ref name=Coad31>Coad ''Battle Abbey and Battlefield'' p. 31</ref>{{efn|The first recorded mention of the tapestry is from 1476, but it is similar in style to late Anglo-Saxon manuscript illustrations and may have been composed and executed in England.<ref name=Coad31/> The Tapestry now is displayed at the former Bishop's Palace at [[Bayeux]] in France.<ref name=Gravett99>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 99</ref>}} In modern times annual [[Battle of Hastings reenactment|reenactments]] of the battle have drawn thousands of participants and spectators to the site of the original battle.<ref>{{cite news|title=Normans fight Saxons... and the rain|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/970522.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=King Harold and William square up|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/southern_counties/6050986.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=22 August 2013|date=14 October 2006}}</ref> Some English veterans of the battle left England and joined the [[Varangian Guard]] in Constantinople. They fought the Normans again at the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]] in 1081, and were defeated again in similar circumstances.<ref>Norwich ''Byzantium'' p. 19</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ermenfrid Penitential]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|40em}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|25em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|60em}}
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* {{cite book |author=Crouch, David |author-link= David Crouch (historian) |title=The Normans: The History of a Dynasty |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85285-595-6 }}
* {{cite book |author= Douglas, David C. |title= William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England |author-link=David C. Douglas |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |oclc=399137 }}
* {{cite web |author=English Heritage |title=Research on Battle Abbey and Battlefield |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/1066-battle-of-hastings-abbey-and-battlefield/history-and-stories/history/research/ |access-date=21 January 2021 }}
* {{Cite book |author=Freeman, Edward A. |title=The History of the Norman Conquest of England: Its Causes and Results |author-link=Edward Augustus Freeman |volume=III |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1869 |oclc=186846557 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }}
* {{cite book |author=Gravett, Christopher |title=Hastings 1066: The Fall of Saxon England |author-link=Christopher Gravett |series=Campaign |volume=13 |publisher=Osprey |year=1992 |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=1-84176-133-8 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Hallam, Elizabeth M. |author2=Everard, Judith |title=Capetian France 987–1328 |edition=Second |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-582-40428-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Hare, J. N. |title=Battle Abbey: The Eastern Range and the Excavations of 1978–80 |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/eh_monographs_2014/contents.cfm?mono=1089016 |publisher=English Heritage |location=London |date=1984 |isbn=978-1-84802-134-1 |via=Archaeology Data Service | pages=11 }}
* {{cite book |author=Higham, Nick |title=The Death of Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Sutton |location=Stroud, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-7509-2469-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4058-1155-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=Ruling England 1042–1217 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-84882-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Lawson, M. K. |title=The Battle of Hastings: 1066 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2002 |isbn=0-7524-1998-6 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Livesay, Edwina |title=Skeleton 180 Shock Dating Result |journal=Sussex Past and Present |volume=133 |year=2014 |page=6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Marren, Peter |title=1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings |authorlink=Peter Marren |publisher=Leo Cooper |location=Barnsley, UK |series=Battleground Britain |year=2004 |isbn=0-85052-953-0 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Musset, Lucien |title=The Bayeux Tapestry |translator=Rex, Richard |publisher=Boydell Press |year=2005 |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=1-84383-163-5 |edition=New }}
* {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |title=Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom |author-link=David Nicolle |publisher=Brockhampton Press |location=Dubai |year=1999 |isbn=1-86019-889-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |title=The Normans |author-link=David Nicolle |publisher=Osprey |location=Oxford, UK |year=1987 |isbn=1-85532-944-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Norwich, John J. |title=Byzantium: The Decline and Fall |date=1995 |location=London |publisher=Viking |isbn=9780670823772 }}
* {{cite book |author=Porter, Roy |title=Pevensey Castle |publisher=English Heritage |location=London |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-910907-41-2 }}
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* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline |title= Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries |author-link=Pauline Stafford |publisher=Edward Arnold |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-7131-6532-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |title= Anglo-Saxon England |author-link= Frank Stenton |year= 1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Thomas, Hugh |title=The Norman Conquest: England after William the Conqueror |series=Critical Issues in History |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc |location=Lanham, MD |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7425-3840-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Walker, Ian |title=Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King |publisher=Wrens Park |location=Gloucestershire, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-905778-46-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Williams, Ann |title= Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King |author-link=Ann Williams (historian) |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=1-85285-382-4 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Subject bar|auto=y|d=y|Middle Ages|Anglo-Saxon England|England}}
*{{Official website|url= https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/1066-battle-of-hastings-abbey-and-battlefield/history-and-stories | name=Official English Heritage site}}
*{{cite web| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/|title=Origins of the conflict, the battle itself and its aftermath|publisher=[[BBC History]]|access-date=22 Apr 2025}}

{{Norman conquest of England}}
{{Authority control}}

{{featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hastings 1066}}
[[Category:1066 in England]]
[[Category:Battles involving England]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Anglo-Saxons]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Normans|Hastings]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1066]]
[[Category:Harold Godwinson]]
[[Category:Hastings|Battle of]]
[[Category:History of East Sussex]]
[[Category:History of Sussex]]
[[Category:Military history of Hastings]]
[[Category:Military history of Sussex]]
[[Category:Norman conquest of England]]
[[Category:Registered historic battlefields in England]]
[[Category:William the Conqueror]]