Editing Behistun Inscription

{{short description|Ancient multilingual stone inscription in Iran}}
{{redirect|Bisitun|the city in Iran|Bisotun}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
| WHS         = Bisotun
| Location    = [[Mount Behistun]], [[Kermanshah Province]], Iran
| Image       = کتیبه داریوش ( بیستون(.jpg
| image_size  = 300
| Caption     = Punishment of captured impostors and conspirators: [[Gaumāta]] lies under the boot of Darius the Great. The last person in line, wearing a traditional [[Scythian]] hat and costume, is identified as [[Skunkha]]. His image was added after the inscription was completed, requiring some of the text to be removed.
| Criteria    = Cultural: ii, iii
| ID          = 1222
| Year        = 2006
| Area        = 187 ha
| Buffer_zone = 361 ha
| locmapin    = West Asia#Iran
| coordinates = {{coord|34|23|26|N|47|26|9|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
}}

The '''Behistun Inscription''' (also '''Bisotun''', '''Bisitun''' or '''Bisutun'''; {{langx|fa|بیستون}}, [[Old Persian]]: '''Bagastana''', meaning "the place of god") is a multilingual [[Achaemenid royal inscriptions| Achaemenid royal inscription]] and large [[rock relief]] on a cliff at [[Mount Behistun]] in the [[Kermanshah Province]] of [[Iran]], near the city of [[Kermanshah]] in western [[Iran]], established by [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/the-arya-in-iran/articleshow/71559634.cms|title=The Arya in Iran}}</ref> It was important to the [[decipherment of cuneiform]], as it is the longest known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written in [[Old Persian]], [[Elamite language|Elamite]], and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]] (a variety of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]).<ref name= BRAMWELL>
"Behistun Inscription is a cuneiform text in three ancient languages."{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientpersia0000bram/page/6/mode/1up|title=Ancient Persia|last=Bramwell|first=Neil D.|date=1932|publisher=NJ Berkeley Heights|page=6|isbn=978-0-7660-5251-2 }}</ref> 

Authored by [[Darius the Great]] sometime between his coronation as king of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the death of [[Cambyses II]] in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the [[Persian Empire]]. The inscription states in detail that the rebellions were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed himself king during the upheaval following Cambyses II's death. Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the "grace of [[Ahura Mazda]]".

The inscription is approximately {{cvt|15|m}} high by {{cvt|25|m}} wide and {{cvt|100|m}} up a [[limestone]] cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of [[Babylonia]] and [[Medes|Media]] ([[Babylon]] and [[Ecbatana]], respectively). The [[Old Persian]] text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 260 lines in eight columns, and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tavernier | first=Jan | title=A list of the Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions by language | journal=Phoenix | volume=67 | issue=2 | pages=1–4 | date=2021 | issn=0031-8329 | url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:268449 | language=fr | access-date=2023-03-25 | ref=none | quote=The rock inscription itself contains no less than 414 lines of Old Persian, 112 lines of Babylonian and 260 lines of Elamite (in an older and a younger version). | archive-date=2023-03-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325100642/https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:268449 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Bīsitūn Inscription [CDLI Wiki] | website=cdli.ox.ac.uk | date=2015-09-06 | url=https://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=bisitun_inscription | access-date=2023-03-25 | ref=none | quote=This tri-lingual inscription has 414 lines in Old Persian cuneiform, 260 in Elamite cuneiform, and 112 in Akkadian cuneiform (Bae: 2008) | archive-date=2023-03-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325102656/https://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=bisitun_inscription | url-status=dead }}</ref> A copy of the text in Aramaic, written during the reign of Darius II, was found in Egypt.<ref>Tavernier, Jan, "An Achaemenid Royal Inscription: The Text of Paragraph 13 of the Aramaic Version of the Bisitun Inscription", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 161–76, 2001</ref> The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized [[bas-relief]] of [[Darius the Great|Darius I, the Great]], holding a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying supine before him.  The supine figure is reputed to be the pretender [[Gaumata]].  Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. A [[Faravahar]] floats above, giving its blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was Darius's beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and [[lead]].

==Name==
The name Behistun is derived from usage in Ancient Greek and Arabic sources, particularly [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Ya'qubi]], transliterated into English in the 19th century by [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]]. The modern Persian version name is Bisotun.<ref name="King Thompson Budge 1907">{{cite book | last1=King | first1=L.W. | last2=Thompson | first2=R.C. | last3=Budge | first3=E.A.W. | title=The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great: On the Rock of Behistûn in Persia | publisher=British museum | year=1907 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhpkAAAAMAAJ | page=xi|quote=The name of the Rock is derived from that of the small village of Bîsitûn or Bîsutûn, which lies near its foot. The form of the name "Behistûn" is not used by the modern inhabitants of the country, although it is that by which the Rock is best known among European scholars. The name "Behistûn," more correctly "Bahistûn," was borrowed by the late Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Bart., G.C. B., from the Arabic geographer Yakût, who mentions the village and its spring, and describes the Rock as being of great height, and refers to the sculptures upon it. The earliest known name of the Rock is that given by Diodorus Siculus, who calls it τό Βαγίστανον ορος, whence, no doubt, are derived the modern forms of the name.}}</ref>

==History==
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| total_width=350
| header   = Darius at Behistun
| image1   = Behistun_relief_Darius_and_Gaumata.jpg
| caption1 = Full figure of Darius trampling rival [[Gaumata]].
| image2   = Behistun Darius the Great.jpg
| caption2 = Head of Darius with crenellated crown
}}

After the fall of the Persian Empire's [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] and its successors, and the lapse of Old Persian cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten, and fanciful explanations became the norm.

[[File:BehistunRoute.jpg|thumb|Route to inscription at upper right.]]
[[File:Behistun 2.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Context of the inscription (centre) in 2010. A person is visible in the lower left; reaching the inscription requires climbing the steep cliff face in front of them, then traversing a narrow ledge.]]

In 1598, Englishman [[Robert Sherley]] saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Persia]] on behalf of [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]], and brought it to the attention of Western European scholars. His party incorrectly came to the conclusion that it was Christian in origin.<ref>E. Denison Ross, The Broadway Travellers: Sir Anthony Sherley and his Persian Adventure, Routledge, 2004, {{ISBN|0-415-34486-7}}</ref> French General [[Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane|Gardanne]] thought it showed "Christ and his [[twelve apostles]]", and [[Robert Ker Porter|Sir Robert Ker Porter]] thought it represented the [[Lost Tribes of Israel]] and [[Shalmaneser V|Shalmaneser of Assyria]].<ref>[https://archive.org/download/travelsingeorgia02port/travelsingeorgia02port.pdf] Robert Ker Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, ancient Babylonia, &c. &c. : during the years 1817, 1818, 1819, and 1820, volume 2, Longman, 1821</ref> In 1604, Italian explorer [[Pietro della Valle]] visited the inscription and made preliminary drawings of the monument.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kipfer|first=Barbara Ann|title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology|publisher=Springer US|year=2013|isbn=9781475751338|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BDKqBgAAQBAJ}}</ref>

==Translation efforts==
[[File:Behistun DB1 1-15.jpg|thumb|Column 1 (DB I 1–15), sketch by [[Friedrich von Spiegel]] (1881).]]
[[File:Aramaic translation of the behistun inscripton.png|thumb|[[Behistun papyrus]] with an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] translation of the Behistun inscription's text, known as [[Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt|TAD]] C2.1.]]
{{see also|Decipherment of cuneiform}}

German surveyor [[Carsten Niebuhr]] visited in around 1764 for [[Frederick V of Denmark]], publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1778.<ref>Carsten Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung von Arabien und anderen umliegenden Ländern, 2 volumes, 1774 and 1778</ref> Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]] and others in their efforts to decipher the [[Old Persian cuneiform]] script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802, after realizing that unlike the Semitic cuneiform scripts, Old Persian text is alphabetic and each word is separated by a vertical slanted symbol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/oldpersian.html |title=Old Persian |publisher=Ancient Scripts |access-date=2010-04-23| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100418053701/http://www.ancientscripts.com/oldpersian.html| archive-date= 18 April 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref>

In 1835, [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Rawlinson]], an officer of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] army assigned to the forces of the [[Shah]] of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisotun's name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun Inscription". Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff with the help of a local boy and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four meters above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later. In 1847, he was able to send a full and accurate copy to Europe.<ref name=Hariri2015>{{cite book | last=Harari | first=Y.N. | title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind | publisher=HarperCollins | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-06-231610-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmyBAwAAQBAJ | chapter=15. The Marriage of Science and Empire<!-- in subsection "Rare Spiders and Forgotten Scripts" -- pageno unknown -- info is from the e-book-->}}</ref>

==Later research and activity==
[[File:BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg|225px|thumb|right|Close-up of the inscription.]]
[[File:Behistun Inscription in Persia ca. 520 BC- UNESCO World Heritage Site.jpg|thumb|right|The Behistun Inscription photographed in 2019
]]
The site was visited by the American linguist [[A. V. Williams Jackson]] in 1903.<ref>A. V. Williams Jackson, "The Great Behistun Rock and Some Results of a Re-Examination of the Old Persian Inscriptions on It", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', vol. 24, pp. 77–95, 1903</ref> Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the [[British Museum]] and led by [[Leonard William King]] and [[Reginald Campbell Thompson]] and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the [[University of Michigan]], obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson.<ref>[https://archive.org/download/sculpturesinscri00brituoft/sculpturesinscri00brituoft.pdf] W. King and R. C. Thompson, The sculptures and inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia: a new collation of the Persian, Susian and Babylonian texts, Longmans, 1907</ref><ref>George G. Cameron, The Old Persian Text of the Bisitun Inscription, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 47–54, 1951</ref><ref>George G. Cameron, The Elamite Version of the Bisitun Inscriptions, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 59–68, 1960</ref><ref>W. C. Benedict and Elizabeth von Voigtlander, Darius' Bisitun Inscription, Babylonian Version, Lines 1–29, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 1956</ref>
It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text was inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.

In 1938, the inscription became of interest to the Nazi German think tank [[Ahnenerbe]], although research plans were cancelled due to the onset of World War II.

The monument later suffered some damage from [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] soldiers using it for target practice in [[World War II]], and during the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=2799.5;wap2 | title=BEHISTUN Inscription - Persia | access-date=2011-07-20 | archive-date=2012-02-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203155912/http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=2799.5;wap2 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1999, Iranian archeologists began the documentation and assessment of damages to the site incurred during the 20th century. Malieh Mehdiabadi, who was [[project manager]] for the effort, described a [[Photogrammetry|photogrammetric]] process by which two-dimensional photos were taken of the inscriptions using two cameras and later transmuted into 3-D images.<ref name="chnpress1">{{cite web|url=http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=2589 |title=Documentation of Behistun Inscription Nearly Complete |publisher=Chnpress.com |access-date=2010-04-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918093441/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=2589 |archive-date=2011-09-18 }}</ref>

In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works.  The site became a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jul/1130.html |title=Iran's Bisotoon Historical Site Registered in World Heritage List |publisher=Payvand.com |date=2006-07-13 |access-date=2010-04-23 |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122846/http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jul/1130.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2012, the Bisotun Cultural Heritage Center organized an international effort to re-examine the inscription.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tehrantimes.com/arts-and-culture/98233-intl-experts-to-reread-bisotun-inscriptions |title=Intl. Experts to reread Bisotun inscriptions - Tehran Times |access-date=2012-04-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529044243/http://www.tehrantimes.com/arts-and-culture/98233-intl-experts-to-reread-bisotun-inscriptions |archive-date=2012-05-29 }} Intl. experts to reread Bisotun inscriptions, Tehran Times, May 27, 2012{{dead link|date=October 2016}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Content==
{{wikisource|1=The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia/Annotated/The Persian Text|2=Full translation of the Behistun Inscription}}
[[File:Lineage of Darius the Great.jpg|thumb|Lineage of [[Darius the Great]] according to the Behistun inscription.]]

===Lineage===
{{see also|Achaemenid family tree}}
In the first section of the inscription, Darius the Great declares his ancestry and lineage:

{{Blockquote|
King [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] says: My father is [[Hystaspes (father of Darius I)|Hystaspes]] [Vištâspa]; the father of [[Hystaspes (father of Darius I)|Hystaspes]] was [[Arsames]] [Aršâma]; the father of [[Arsames]] was [[Ariaramnes]] [Ariyâramna]; the father of [[Ariaramnes]] was [[Teispes]] [Cišpiš]; the father of [[Teispes]] was [[Achaemenes]] [Haxâmaniš].
King [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] says: That is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.
King [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] says: Eight of my dynasty were kings before me; I am the ninth. Nine in succession we have been kings.
King [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] says: By the grace of [[Ahuramazda]] am I king; [[Ahuramazda]] has granted me the kingdom.}}

===Territories===
[[File:Map of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent]]
Darius also lists the territories under his rule:

{{quote|
King [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] says: These are the countries which are subject unto me, and by the grace of [[Ahuramazda]] I became king of them: [[Persia]] [Pârsa], [[Elam]] [Ûvja], [[Babylonia]] [Bâbiruš], [[Assyria]] [Athurâ], [[Arabia]] [Arabâya], [[Egypt]] [Mudrâya], the countries by the Sea [Tyaiy Drayahyâ ([[Phoenicia]])], [[Lydia]] [Sparda], [[Ionia|the Greeks]] [Yauna ([[Ionia]])], [[Medes|Media]] [Mâda], [[Armenia]] [Armina], [[Cappadocia]] [Katpatuka], [[Parthia]] [Parthava], [[Drangiana]] [Zraka], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] [Haraiva], [[Chorasmia]] [Uvârazmîy], [[Bactria]] [Bâxtriš], [[Sogdia]] [Suguda], [[Gandhara]] [Gadâra], [[Skudra|Scythia]] [Saka], [[Sattagydia]] [Thataguš], [[Arachosia]] [Harauvatiš] and [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] [Maka]; twenty-three lands in all.}}

===Conflicts and revolts===

Later in the inscription, Darius provides an eye-witness account of battles he successfully fought over a one-year period to put down rebellions which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great, and his son Cambyses II:
<gallery widths="150px" heights="180px">
Behistun Relief, Assina.jpg|{{center|Relief of [[Âššina]] {{circa|519 BC}}: "This is Âššina. He lied, saying ''"I am king of [[Elam]]."''"<ref name=DB>{{cite book|title=Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius|url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-inscriptions/|access-date=2020-03-26|archive-date=2020-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310112440/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-inscriptions/|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
Behistun Relief Nidintu-Bêl.jpg|{{center|Relief of [[Nidintu-Bêl]]: "This is Nidintu-Bêl. He lied, saying ''"I am [[Nebuchadnezzar III|Nebuchadnezzar]], the son of [[Nabonidus]]. I am king of [[Babylon]]."''"<ref name=DB/>}}
Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg|Relief of [[Tritantaechmes]]: "This is Tritantaechmes. He lied, saying ''"I am king of [[Sagartians|Sagartia]], from the family of [[Cyaxares]]."''"<ref name=DB/>
Behistun relief Arakha.jpg|Relief of [[Arakha]]: "This is Arakha. He lied, saying: ''"I am [[Nebuchadnezzar IV|Nebuchadnezzar]], the son of [[Nabonidus]]. I am king in Babylon."''"<ref name=DB/>
Behistun relief Frada.jpg|Relief of Frâda: "This is Frâda. He lied, saying ''"I am king of [[Margiana]]."''"<ref name=DB/>
Behistun relief Skunkha.jpg|Behistun relief of [[Skunkha]]. Label: "This is Skunkha the [[Saka|Sacan]]."<ref name=DB/>
</gallery>

==Other historical monuments in the Behistun complex==

The site covers an area of 116 hectares. Archeological evidence indicates that this region became a human shelter 40,000 years ago. There are 18 historical monuments other than the inscription of Darius the Great in the Behistun complex that have been registered in the Iranian national list of historical sites. Some of them are:

{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* Hunters' cave
* [[Farhād Tarāsh]]
* [[Medes|Median]] fortress
* [[Parthia]]n town
* [[Statue of Hercules in Behistun]]
* [[Parthia]]n site of worship
{{col-3}}
* [[Behistun Palace]] (said to be Palace of [[Khosrau II]])
* [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] [[caravanserai]]
* Median temple
* Bas relief of [[Mithridates II of Parthia]]
* Bas relief of [[Gotarzes II of Parthia]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh]] text endowment
* [[Safavid]] [[caravanserai]]
* [[Vologases's relief]] 
* Carved Sassanian stones
* [[Royal Road]]
{{col-end}}
<gallery widths="190px" heights="150px">
Image:Seleucid statue of Hercules 2.jpg|Statue of Herakles in Behistun complex
File:Heracles Behistun 4000762965 10dbfce20a.jpg|Herakles at Behistun, sculpted for a Seleucis Governor in 148 BC.
Image:Godarz.jpg|Bas relief of [[Mithridates II of Parthia]] and bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia and Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment
File:Behistun, Parthian relief of Gotarzes II.jpg|Damaged equestrian relief of [[Gotarzes II]] at Behistun
File:نقش برجسته بلاش 1.JPG|Vologases's relief in Behistun
<!-- Deleted image removed: Image:Ilkhanid caravansary near Behistun inscription.png|Safavid Caravansary near Behistun (named Shah Abbasi) -->
<!-- Deleted image removed: Image:Behistun Palace.png|Ruined palace near Behistun, Believed to be the palace of [[Khosrow II]] -->
</gallery>

==Similar reliefs and inspiration==
[[File:Anubanini rock relief woodprint.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Anubanini rock relief]], dated to 2300 BC, and made by the pre-Iranian [[Lullubi]] ruler [[Anubanini]], is very similar in content to the Behistun reliefs (woodprint).]]
{{Main|Anubanini rock relief}}
The [[Anubanini rock relief]], also called Sarpol-i Zohab, of the [[Lullubi]] king [[Anubanini]], dated to {{circa|2300 BC}}, and which is located not far from the Behistun reliefs at [[Sarpol-e Zahab]], is very similar to the reliefs at Behistun. The attitude of the ruler, the trampling of an enemy, the lines of prisoners are all very similar, to such extent that it was said that the sculptors of the Behistun Inscription had probably seen the Anubanini relief beforehand and were inspired by it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Potts |first1=D. T. |title=The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521564960 |page=318 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA318 |language=en |access-date=2019-03-15 |archive-date=2017-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012050532/https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Lullubi]]an reliefs were the model for the Behistun reliefs of [[Darius the Great]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wiesehofer |first1=Josef |title=Ancient Persia |date=2001 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=9781860646751 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFocMaM49SgC&pg=PA13 |language=en |access-date=2019-03-17 |archive-date=2012-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502163656/http://books.google.com/books?id=yFocMaM49SgC |url-status=live }}</ref>

The inscriptional tradition of the Achaemenids, starting especially with [[Darius I]], is thought to have derived from the traditions of [[Elam]], [[Lullubi]], the [[Babylonians]] and the [[Assyria]]ns.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eastmond |first1=Antony |title=Viewing Inscriptions in the Late Antique and Medieval World |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107092419 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uJwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |language=en |access-date=2019-03-16 |archive-date=2020-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518234133/https://books.google.com/books?id=5uJwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Behistun palace]]
* [[Darius I of Persia]]
* [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid empire]]
* [[Taq-e Bostan]] (Rock reliefs of various Sassanid kings)
* [[Pasargadae]] (Tomb of Pasargadae [[Cyrus the Great]])
* [[Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]]
* [[Naqsh-e Rajab]]
* [[Cities of the Ancient Near East]]
* [[Gaumata (False Smerdis)]]
* [[Anubanini rock relief]]
* [[List of colossal sculptures in situ]]
* [[World Heritage Sites by country]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*[[Roy and Lesley Adkins|Adkins, Lesley]], ''Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
*Blakesley, J. W. ''[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3917316;view=1up;seq=23 An Attempt at an Outline of the Early Medo-Persian History, founded on the Rock-Inscriptions of Behistun taken in combination with the Accounts of Herodotus and Ctesias]''. (Trinity College, Cambridge,) in the ''Proceedings of the Philological Society''.
* [[Riekele Borger|Borger, Rykle]]. ''Die Chronologie des Darius-Denkmals am Behistun-Felse'', Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1982, {{ISBN|3-525-85116-2}}.
*Cameron, George G. "Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock". ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]''. Vol. XCVIII, Num. 6, December 1950. (pp.&nbsp;825–844)
*[[Reginald Campbell Thompson|Thompson, R. Campbell]]. "The Rock of Behistun". ''Wonders of the Past''. Edited by Sir J. A. Hammerton. Vol. II. New York: Wise and Co., 1937. (pp.&nbsp;760–767) {{cite web|url=http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html |title=Behistun |publisher=Members.ozemail.com.au |access-date=2010-04-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113111204/http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html |archive-date=January 13, 2010 }}
*[[Louis Herbert Gray|Louis H. Gray]], Notes on the Old Persian Inscriptions of Behistun, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 23, pp.&nbsp;56–64, 1902
*[https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/articles/cdlb/2024-3.pdf]Karaj, Iran, "A New Reading of the 70th Paragraph of the Behistun Inscription", Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 3, 2024
*[[Paul J. Kosmin]], A New Hypothesis: The Behistun Inscription as Imperial Calendar,  Iran - Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, August 2018
*[[Albert T. Olmstead|A. T. Olmstead]], Darius and His Behistun Inscription, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 55, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;392–416, 1938
*[[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Rawlinson, H.C.]], ''Archaeologia'', 1853, vol. xxxiv, p.&nbsp;74.
*Rubio, Gonzalo. "Writing in another tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East". In ''Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures'' (ed. Seth Sanders. 2nd printing with postscripts and corrections. Oriental Institute Seminars, 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp.&nbsp;33–70.{{cite web |url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/ois/ois2.html |title=Oriental Institute &#124; Oriental Institute Seminars (OIS) |publisher=Oi.uchicago.edu |date=2009-06-18 |access-date=2010-04-23 |archive-date=2014-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604035903/http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/ois/ois2.html |url-status=dead }}
* Saber Amiri Parian, [https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlb/2017/cdlb2017_003.html A New Edition of the Elamite Version of the Behistun Inscription (I)], Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 2017:003.
* [[Rüdiger Schmitt|Schmitt, Rüdiger]]. ''Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden. Editio minor mit deutscher Übersetzung'', Reichert, Wiesbaden, 2023, {{ISBN|978-3-7520-0716-9}}, pp. 9 and 36–96.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Behistun Inscription}}
{{Wikisource|1=The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia/Annotated/The Persian Text|2=Full translation of the Behistun Inscription}}
*{{cite book |title=The sculptures and inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia : a new collation of the Persian, Susian and Babylonian texts, with English translations, etc |first1=L. W. |last1=King |first2=R. Campbell |last2=Thompson |publisher=[[British Museum]] |year=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/sculpturesinscri00brituoft }}
**[https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html The Behistun Inscription] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225415/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html |date=2016-03-03 }}, livius.org article by Jona Lendering, including Persian text (in cuneiform and transliteration), King and Thompson's English translation, and additional materials
*{{cite book |title=The Behistan inscription of King Darius: translation and critical notes to the Persian text with special reference to recent re-examinations of the rock |last=Tolman |first=Herbert Cushing |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/behistaninscript00daririch }}
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20090413214509/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html Tolman's English translation of the inscription text]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1222 Brief description of Bisotun] from [[UNESCO]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090605010957/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=7430 "Bisotun receives its World Heritage certificate"], [[Cultural Heritage News Agency]], Tehran, July 3, 2008
* [https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun-rem.html Other monuments of Behistun] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107071427/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun-rem.html |date=2016-11-07 }}
* Rüdiger Schmitt, "Bisotun i", [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bisotun-i]
* {{cite journal |last1=Hyland |first1=John O. |title=The Casualty Figures in Darius' Bisitun Inscription |journal=Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History |date=2014 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=173–199 |doi=10.1515/janeh-2013-0001|s2cid=180763595 }}
{{Achaemenid Empire}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Iran}}
{{Kermanshah Province}}

[[Category:Behistun Inscription| ]]
[[Category:Achaemenid inscriptions]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Kermanshah province]]
[[Category:Multilingual texts]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iran]]
[[Category:Sculpture of the ancient Near East]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Iran]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Kermanshah province]]
[[Category:Darius the Great]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures on the Iran National Heritage List]]