Editing Black-browed albatross

{{short description|Large seabird of the albatross family Diomedeidae}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Black-browed albatross
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>BirdLife International. 2018. Thalassarche melanophris. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22698375A132643647. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698375A132643647.en. Retrieved 2 January 2019.</ref>
| image = Thalassarche melanophrys - SE Tasmania.jpg
| genus = Thalassarche
| species = melanophris
| authority = ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1828)<ref>Brands, S. (2008)</ref>
| range_map = Black-browed Albatross-map-localisation-fr.svg
| range_map_caption = Black-browed albatross range
| synonyms = ''Diomedea melanophris''
}}
[[File:Thalassarche melanophrys subadult plumage - SE Tasmania.jpg|thumb|Sub-adult plumage]]

The '''black-browed albatross''' ('''''Thalassarche melanophris'''''), also known as the '''black-browed mollymawk''',<ref name="Robertson3">Robertson, C. J. R. (2003)</ref> is a large [[seabird]] of the [[albatross]] family Diomedeidae; it is the most widespread and common member of its family.

==Taxonomy==
Mollymawks are albatrosses in the family [[Diomedeidae]] and order [[Procellariiformes]], which also includes [[shearwater]]s, [[fulmar]]s, [[storm petrel]]s, and [[diving petrel]]s. These birds share certain identifying features. They have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called [[naricorns]], although the nostrils on the albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. They produce a [[stomach oil]] made up of [[wax ester]]s and [[triglycerides]] that is stored in the [[proventriculus]]. This is used against predators as well as being an energy-rich food source for chicks and also for the adults during their long flights.<ref>Double, M. C. (2003)</ref> The albatross also has a [[salt gland]] above the nasal passage which helps to remove salt from the ocean water that they imbibe. The gland excretes a high saline solution through the bird's nose.<ref>Ehrlich, Paul R. (1988)</ref>

In 1998, Robertson and Nunn published their view that the [[Campbell albatross]] (''Thalassarche impavida''), should be split from this species (''T. melanophris'').<ref name="Nunn">Robertson, C. J. R. & Nunn (1998)</ref> Over the course of the next few years, others agreed, including [[BirdLife International]] in 2000,<ref name="BLI">BirdLife International (2008)</ref> and Brooke in 2004.<ref name="Brooke">Brooke, M. (2004)</ref> [[James Clements (ornithologist)|James Clements]] did not adopt the split,<ref name="Clements">Clements, J. (2007)</ref> the [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels|ACAP]] has not yet adopted the split, and the [[American Ornithologists' Union|SACC]] recognizes the need for a proposal.<ref name="Remsen">Remsen Jr., J. V. (2008)</ref>

The black-browed albatross was first described as ''Diomedea melanophris'' by [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck]], in 1828, based on a specimen from the [[Cape of Good Hope]].<ref name = "Robertson"/>

==Etymology==
The origin of the name ''melanophris'' comes from two [[Greek (language)|Greek]] words ''melas'' or ''melanos'', meaning "black", and ''ophris'', meaning "eyebrow", referring to dark feathering around the eyes.<ref>Gotch, A. F. (1995)</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Thalassarche melanophrys in flight 2 - SE Tasmania.jpg|thumb|East of [[Tasmania]], Southern Ocean]]
The black-browed albatross is a medium-sized albatross, at {{convert|80|to(-)|95|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with a {{convert|200|to(-)|240|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan and an average weight of {{convert|2.9|to(-)|4.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Robertson3"/> It can have a natural lifespan of over 70 years. It has a dark grey saddle and upperwings that contrast with the white rump, and underparts. The underwing is predominantly white with broad, irregular, black margins. It has a dark eyebrow and a yellow-orange [[beak|bill]] with a darker reddish-orange tip. Juveniles have dark horn-colored bills with dark tips, and a grey head and collar. They also have dark underwings. The features that distinguish it from other mollymawks (except the closely related [[Campbell albatross]]) are the dark eyestripe which gives it its name, a broad black edging to the white underside of its wings, white head and orange bill, tipped darker orange.  The Campbell albatross is very similar but with a pale eye. Immature birds are similar to [[grey-headed albatross]]es but the latter have wholly dark bills and more complete dark head markings.

==Range and habitat==
{|class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|+'''Breeding population and trends'''<ref name="BLI"/>
|-
! Location !! Population !! Date !! Trend
|-
|[[Falkland Islands]]|| 399,416 pairs|| 2007|| Decreasing 0.7% yr
|-
|[[South Georgia Island]]|| 74,296 pairs|| 2006|| Decreasing
|-
|[[Chile]]|| 122,000 pairs|| 2007||
|-
|[[Antipodes Island]]|| ?||1998 ||
|-
|[[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]]|| ?||1998  ||
|-
|[[Heard Island]]|| 600 pairs||1998  || Increasing
|-
|[[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|McDonald Island]]|| ?|| 1998 ||
|-
|[[Crozet Islands]]|| ?||1998  ||
|-
|[[Kerguelen Islands]]|| ?|| 1998 || Decreasing
|-
|[[Macquarie Island]]|| ?|| 1998 ||
|-
|[[Snares Islands]]|| ?|| 1998 ||
|-
|'''Total''' || '''600,000''' pairs|| '''2005''' ||'''Decreasing'''
|}

The black-browed albatross is circumpolar in the southern oceans, and it breeds on 12 islands throughout that range. In the [[Atlantic Ocean]], it breeds on the [[Falkland Islands]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], and the [[Cape Horn|Cape Horn Islands]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Thalassarche_melanophrys/|title=Thalassarche melanophrys black-browed albatros|last=Gardner|first=Jacob|date=2011|website=Animal Diversity Web|access-date=15 January 2020}}</ref> In the [[Pacific Ocean]] it breeds on [[Islas Ildefonso]], [[Diego de Almagro Island|Diego de Almagro]], [[Evangelistas Islets|Islas Evangelistas]], [[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]], [[Antipodes Islands]], [[Snares Islands]], and [[Macquarie Island]]. In the [[Indian Ocean]] it breeds on the [[Crozet Islands]], [[Kerguelen Islands]], [[Heard Island]], and [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|McDonald Island]].<ref name="Croxall">Croxall, J. P. & Gales, R. (1998)</ref>

There are an estimated 1,220,000 birds alive with 600,853 breeding pairs, as estimated by a 2005 count. Of these birds, 402,571 breed in the [[Falklands]], 72,102 breed on [[South Georgia Island]], 120,171 breed on the [[Chile]]an islands of Islas Ildefonso, Diego de Almagro, Islas Evangelistas, and Islas Diego Ramírez. 600 pairs breed on [[Heard Island]], Finally, the remaining 5,409 pairs breed on the remaining islands.<ref name="Robertson">Robertson, G.; et al. (2007)</ref><ref name="Huin">Huin, N. & Reid, T. (2007)</ref><ref name="Poncet">Poncet, S.; et al. (2006)</ref> This particular species of albatross prefers to forage over [[Continental shelf|shelf]] and shelf-break areas. Falkland Island birds winter near the [[Patagonian Shelf]], and birds from South Georgia forage in [[South Africa]]n waters, using the [[Benguela Current]], and the [[Chile]]an birds forage over the [[Patagonian Shelf]], the [[Chilean Shelf]], and even make it as far as [[New Zealand]]. It is the most likely albatross to be found in the North Atlantic due to a northerly [[bird migration|migratory]] tendency. There have been 20 possible sightings in the [[Continental United States]].<ref name="Dunn">Dunn, Jon L. & Alderfer, Jonathan (2006)</ref>

==Behaviour==
{{Css Image Crop|Image = FAL-2016-New Island, Falkland Islands-Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) 01.jpg |bSize = 475|cWidth = 220|cHeight = 220|oTop = 5|oLeft = 17|Location = right|Description = Black-browed albatross [[preening (bird)|preening]] its newborn ([[New Island]], [[Falkland Islands]]).}}
[[File:Albatrosses associating with killer whales.JPG|thumb|Associating with a [[killer whale]]. Picture taken by an albatross-borne camera.]]
[[File:Black-browed Albatross, Beagle Channel.jpg|thumb|Taking off]]
Colonies are very noisy as they bray to mark their territory, and also cackle harshly. They use their fanned tail in courting displays.<ref name="Robertson3"/>

===Feeding===
The black-browed albatross feeds on fish, [[squid]], [[crustaceans]], [[carrion]], and fishery discards.<ref name="Cherel">Cherel, Y.; et al. (2002)</ref><ref name="Xavier">Xavier, J. C.; et al. (2003)</ref><ref name="Arata">Arata, J.; et al. (2003)</ref> This species has been observed stealing food from other species.<ref name="Robertson3"/>

===Reproduction===
[[File:Thalassarche melanophris MHNT.jpg|thumb|Egg - [[MHNT]]]]
[[File:Black-browed-albatross-Colony.jpg|thumb|Colony on [[Saunders Island, Falkland Islands]]]]
This species normally nests on steep slopes covered with [[tussock grass]] and sometimes on cliffs; however, on the [[Falklands]] it nests on flat grassland on the coast.<ref name="BLI"/> They are an annual breeder laying one egg from between 20 September and 1 November, although the Falklands, [[Crozet Islands|Crozet]], and [[Flora and fauna of the Kerguelen Islands|Kerguelen]] breeders lay about three weeks earlier. Incubation is done by both sexes and lasts 68 to 71 days. After hatching, the chicks take 120 to 130 days to fledge. Juveniles will return to the colony after two to three years but only to practice courtship rituals, as they start breeding around the 10th year.<ref name="Robertson3"/>

==Conservation==
Until 2013, the [[IUCN]] classified this species as [[endangered]] due to a drastic reduction in population.<ref name="IUCN">BirdLife International (2013)</ref> [[Bird Island, South Georgia|Bird Island]] near South Georgia Island had a 4% per year loss of nesting pairs,<ref name="Poncet"/> and the [[Kerguelen Island]] population had a 17% reduction from 1979 to 1995.<ref name="Wei">Weimerskirch, H. & Jouventin, P. (1998)</ref> [[Diego Ramírez Islands|Diego Ramírez]] decreased in the 1980s but has rebounded recently,<ref name="Schlatter">Schlatter, R. P. (1984)</ref><ref name="Arata1">Arata, J. & Moreno, C. A. (2002)</ref> and the [[Falklands]] had a surge in the 1980s<ref name="Croxall"/><ref name="Gales">Gales, R. (1998)</ref> probably due to abundant fish waste from trawlers;<ref name = "Thompson">Thompson, K. R. & Riddy, M. D. (1995)</ref> however, recent censuses have shown drastic reduction in the majority of the nesting sites there.<ref name="Huin"/> There has been a 67% decline in the population over 64 years.<ref name="BLI"/>
[[File:Black-browed Albatross skeleton.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of a black-browed albatross ([[Museum of Osteology]])]]
Increased [[longline fishing]] in the southern oceans, especially around the [[Patagonian Shelf]] and around South Georgia has been attributed as a major cause of the decline of this bird,<ref name="Prince">Prince, P. A.; et al. (1998)</ref><ref name="Schiavini">Schiavini, A.; et al. (1998)</ref><ref name="Stagi">Stagi, A.; et al. (1998)</ref><ref name="Tuck">Tuck, G. & Polacheck, T. (1997)</ref> The black-browed albatross has been found to be the most common bird killed by fisheries.<ref name="Schiavini"/><ref name="Stagi"/><ref name="Gales2">Gales, R.; et al. (1998)</ref><ref name="Murray">Murray, T. E.; et al. (1993)</ref><ref name="Boix">Ryan, P. G. & Boix-Hinzen, C. (1998)</ref><ref name="Ryan">Ryan, P. G.; et al. (2002)</ref><ref name="Reid2">Reid, T. A. & Sullivan, B. J. (2004)</ref> [[Trawl fishing]], especially around the [[Patagonian Shelf]]<ref name="Sullivan">Sullivan, B. J. & Reid, T. A. (2002)</ref> and near South Africa, is also a large cause of deaths.<ref name="Watkins">Watkins, B. P.; et, al (2007)</ref>

Conservation efforts underway start with this species being placed on [[Convention on Migratory Species]] Appendix II, and [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels]] Annex 1. It is being monitored on half of the islands, and most of the breeding sites are reserves. [[Heard Island]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|McDonald Island]], [[Macquarie Island]], and the [[New Zealand]] islands are [[World Heritage Site]]s. An initial [[Chile]]an census has also been completed.<ref name="Lawton">Lawton, K.; et al. (2004)</ref>

==Vagrancy==
Although this is a rare occurrence, on several occasions a black-browed albatross has summered in [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[gannet]] colonies ([[Bass Rock]], [[Hermaness]] and now [[Sula Sgeir]]) for a number of years. Ornithologists believe that it was the same bird, known as ''Albert'', who lives in north [[Scotland]].<ref>Ivens, Martin (9 May 2007)</ref><ref name="BBC-6641021">{{cite news | publisher =  BBC | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/6641021.stm | title = No romance for lovesick albatross | date = 9 May 2007 | access-date = 9 May 2007}}</ref> It is believed that the bird was blown off course into the North Atlantic in 1967.<ref name="BBC-6641021" /> A similar incident took place in the gannet colony in the [[Faroe Islands]] island of [[Mykines, Faroe Islands|Mykines]], where a black-browed albatross lived among the gannets for over 30 years. This incident is the reason why an albatross is referred to as a "gannet king" ([[Faroese language|Faroese]]: súlukongur) in Faroese.<ref name="Ryggi1">á Ryggi, M. (1951)</ref> In July 2013 the first recorded sighting of a black-browed albatross in the Bahamas was made from the Bahamas Marine Mammal Research Organisation's research vessel, off Sandy Point, [[Abaco Islands|Abaco]]. For four consecutive years from 2014 on, a bird - probably the same individual named ''Albert'' - has been sighted over [[Heligoland]], and on the east coast of England, spending much time at Bempton Cliffs. The individual spent lots of time at Bempton over the summers of 2021 and 2022, but failed to return subsequently.<ref name="Fotos">[http://www.club300.de/gallery/index.php?gal=1&cat=0&mode=1&val=13 Fotonachweise] vom 28./29. Mai, 4./5. Juni und 12./13. Juni 2014 auf Helgoland. Bericht mit Fotos in ''Der Falke'' Nr. 8/2014, S. 34–37.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.birdguides.com/species/species.asp?sp=010007 |title=Beobachtungsnachweise bei birdguides.com |access-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421094911/http://www.birdguides.com/species/species.asp?sp=010007 |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[https://www.faz.net/aktuell/gesellschaft/tiere/seltener-vogel-auf-helgoland-er-ist-wieder-da-14174541.html Sighting on Heligoland, 2016 (German)]</ref><ref>[http://www.cn-online.de/stadt-land/news/albatros-fliegt-wieder-helgoland-an.html Sighting on Heligoland, 2017 (German)]</ref>
[[File:Thalassarche melanophris heligoland-4.jpg|thumb|Black-browed albatross on [[Heligoland]] (April 2017)]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==<!-- QUATERNÁRIO DO RS:INTEGRANDO CONHECIMENTOS:23 -->
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==External links==
*[https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(21)01595-5 Black-browed albatross divi deep. Current Biology, read 24 jan 2022.]
{{Commons category|Thalassarche melanophris}}
{{Wikispecies|Thalassarche melanophris}}
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3959&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet.]
*[http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob140.htm BTO BirdFacts – Black-browed albatross]
*ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20041214062036/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Thalassarche_melanophrys/ Images and movies of the black-browed albatross (''Thalassarche melanophris'')]
* Black-browed albatross - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/012.pdf Species text in ''The Atlas of Southern African Birds''].

{{Procellariiformes}}
{{portalbar|Birds|Animals|Biology}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q602598}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Thalassarche|black-browed albatross]]
[[Category:Birds of Southern Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of South America]]
[[Category:Birds of Western Australia]]
[[Category:Birds of South Australia]]
[[Category:Birds of Victoria (state)]]
[[Category:Birds of Tasmania]]
[[Category:Birds of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Birds of the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Birds of islands of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Birds of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Birds of subantarctic islands]]
[[Category:Fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
[[Category:Endangered fauna of Australia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1828|black-browed albatross]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Coenraad Jacob Temminck|black-browed albatross]]