Editing Blame

{{Short description|Act of censuring, holding responsible, or making negative statements about an individual or group}}
{{other uses}}
{{Redirect|Blaming|the novel|Blaming (novel){{!}}''Blaming'' (novel)}}
'''Blame''' is the act of [[censuring]], holding responsible, or making negative statements about an individual or group that their actions or inaction are socially or morally irresponsible, the opposite of [[praise]]. When someone is [[morally responsible]] for doing something wrong, their action is blameworthy. By contrast, when someone is morally responsible for doing something right, it may be said that their action is [[praise]]worthy. There are other senses of praise and blame that are not ethically relevant. One may praise someone's good dress sense, and blame their own sense of style for their own dress sense.

== Philosophy ==

Philosophers discuss the concept of blame as one of the reactive attitudes, a term coined by [[P. F. Strawson]], which includes attitudes like blame, praise, gratitude, resentment, and [[forgiveness]].<ref>Strawson, P. F. (1962). "Freedom and Resentment" Proceedings of the British Academy 48:187-211.</ref> In contrast to physical or intellectual concepts, reactive attitudes are formed from the point of view of an active participant regarding objects. This is to be distinguished from the objective standpoint.

== Neurology ==
Blaming appears to relate to include brain activity in the [[temporoparietal junction]] (TPJ).<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Hoffman
| first1                = Morris B.
| title                 = The Punisher's Brain: The Evolution of Judge and Jury
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=IhgmAwAAQBAJ
| series                = Cambridge Studies in Economics, Choice, and Society
| publisher             = Cambridge University Press
| date      = 2014
| page                  = 68
| isbn                  = 9781107038066
| access-date            = 2014-05-22
| quote                 = Our adult brains [...] have dedicated circuits devoted to the assessment of intentionality and harm, and to the calculation of blame based on those two assessments, using intent as the main driver and harm only as a tiebreaker. Part of those blaming circuits lie in a region called the temporoparietal junction, or TPJ. It is an area of the cortex roughly even with the top of the ears.
}}
</ref> The [[amygdala]] has been found<ref name = "Ngo_amygdala">[http://fortune.com/2015/12/04/brain-wired-praise-blame/?xid=yahoo_fortune amygdala has been found]</ref> to contribute when we blame others, but not when we respond to their positive actions.<ref name=Ngo_blaming_study>{{cite journal |last1 = Ngo |first1 = Lawrence |last2 = Kelly |first2 = Meagan |last3 = Coutlee |first3 = Christopher G |last4 = Carter |first4 = R McKell |last5 = Sinnott-Armstrong |first5 = Walter |last6 = Huettel |first6 = Scott A |year = 2015 |title = Two Distinct Moral Mechanisms for Ascribing and Denying Intentionality. |journal = Scientific Reports |quote = Based on converging behavioral and neural evidence, we demonstrate that there is no single underlying mechanism. Instead, two distinct mechanisms together generate the asymmetry. [[Emotion]] drives ascriptions of intentionality for negative consequences, while the consideration of statistical norms leads to the denial of intentionality for positive consequences. |doi = 10.1038/srep17390|pmid = 26634909 |pages = 17390 |volume = 5 |pmc=4669441|bibcode = 2015NatSR...517390N}}</ref>

==Sociology and psychology==
Humans—consciously and unconsciously—constantly make [[judgments]] about other people. The psychological criteria for judging others may be partly ingrained,{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} negative, and rigid, indicating some degree of [[grandiosity]].{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

Blaming provides a way of devaluing others, with the result that the blamer feels superior, seeing others as less worthwhile and/or making the blamer "perfect". Off-loading blame means putting the other person down by emphasizing their flaws.<ref>Brown, N.W., ''Coping With Infuriating, Mean, Critical People – The Destructive Narcissistic Pattern'' (2006)</ref>

Victims of [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]] and [[abuse]] frequently feel responsible for causing negative feelings in the manipulator/abuser towards them and the resultant [[anxiety]] in themselves. This self-blame often becomes a major feature of [[Victim mentality|victim status]].

The victim gets trapped into a [[self-image]] of [[victimization]]. The psychological profile of victimization includes a pervasive sense of helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking, strong feelings of [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[shame]], [[remorse]], self-blame, and [[depression (mood)|depression]]. This way of thinking can lead to hopelessness and [[despair]].<ref name=braiker>Braiker, H.B., ''Who's Pulling Your Strings? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation'' (2006)</ref>

===Self-blame===
Two main types of [[Self-blame (psychology)|self-blame]] exist:

# '''behavioral self-blame''' – undeserved blame based on actions. Victims who experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something differently, and therefore feel at fault.
# '''characterological self-blame''' – undeserved blame based on character. Victims who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be victimized.

Behavioral self-blame is associated with feelings of [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]] within the victim. While the belief that one had control during the abuse (past control) is associated with greater psychological distress, the belief that one has more control during the recovery process (present control) is associated with less distress, less withdrawal, and more cognitive reprocessing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frazier | first1 = P.A. | last2 = Mortensen | first2 = H. | last3 = Steward | first3 = J. | year = 2005 | title = Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors | journal = Journal of Counseling Psychology | volume = 52 | issue = 3| pages = 267–78 | doi=10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.267}}</ref>

Counseling responses found helpful in reducing self-blame include:<ref>Matsushita-Arao, Y. (1997). Self-blame and depression among forcible rape survivors. ''Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering''. 57(9-B). p. 5925.</ref>

* supportive responses
* psychoeducational responses (for example, learning about [[rape trauma syndrome]])
* responses addressing the issue of blame.

A helpful type of therapy for self-blame is [[cognitive restructuring]] or [[cognitive–behavioral therapy]]. Cognitive reprocessing is the process of taking the facts and forming a [[Logic|logical]] conclusion from them that is less influenced by shame or guilt.<ref>
Branscombe, N.R.; Wohl, M.J.A.; Owen, S.; Allison, J.A.; N'gbala, A. (2003). Counterfactual Thinking, Blame Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. ''Basic & Applied Social Psychology'', 25(4), p. 265, 9p.</ref>

===Victim blaming===
{{main|Victim blaming}}
Victim blaming is holding the victims of a [[crime]], an [[accident]], or any type of [[abusive]] maltreatment to be entirely or partially [[moral responsibility|responsible]] for the incident that has occurred. The [[fundamental attribution error]] concept explains how people tend to blame negative behavior more on the victims traits than the situation at the time of the event.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feigenson |first=Neal |url=http://content.apa.org/books/10358-000 |title=Legal blame: How jurors think and talk about accidents. |date=2000 |publisher=American Psychological Association |isbn=978-1-55798-677-1 |location=Washington |language=en |doi=10.1037/10358-000}}</ref>

===Individual blame versus system blame===
In sociology, [[individual blame]] is the tendency of a group or society to hold the individual responsible for their situation, whereas [[system blame]] is the tendency to focus on social factors that contribute to one's fate.

===Blame shifting===
{{See also|Buck passing|Psychological projection}}
Blaming others can lead to a "[[kick the dog]]" effect where individuals in a [[hierarchy]] blame their immediate subordinate, and this propagates down a hierarchy until the lowest rung (the "dog"). A 2009 experimental study has shown that blaming can be contagious even for uninvolved onlookers.<ref>Jeanna Bryner: [http://livescience.com/culture/blame-contagious-100119.html Workplace Blame Is Contagious and Detrimental], [[LiveScience]], 2010-01-19, citing the January 2010 issue of the ''[[Journal of Experimental Social Psychology]]''.</ref>

In complex international organizations, such as enforcers of national and supranational policies and regulations, the blame is usually attributed to the last echelon, the implementing actors.<ref name="Rittberger2017">{{cite journal |last1=Rittberger |first1=Berthold |last2=Schwarzenbeck |first2=Helena |last3=Zangl |first3=Bernhard |title=Where Does the Buck Stop? Explaining Public Responsibility Attributions in Complex International Institutions |journal=JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies |date=July 2017 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=909–924 |doi=10.1111/jcms.12524|hdl=10.1111/jcms.12524 |s2cid=157749185 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===As a propaganda technique===
{{Main|Scapegoating}}
[[Labeling theory]] accounts for blame by postulating that when intentional actors act out to continuously blame an individual for nonexistent psychological traits and for nonexistent variables, those actors aim to induce irrational [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]] at an unconscious level. Blame in this case becomes a [[propaganda]] tactic, using repetitive blaming behaviors, [[innuendos]], and [[hyperbole]] in order to assign negative status to normative humans. When innocent people are blamed fraudulently for nonexistent psychological states and nonexistent behaviors, and there is no qualifying deviance for the blaming behaviors, the intention is to create a negative valuation of innocent humans to induce fear, by using [[fear mongering]]. For centuries, governments have used blaming in the form of [[demonization]] to influence public perceptions of various other governments, as well as to induce feelings of [[nationalism]] in the public. Blame can [[objectify]] people, groups, and nations, typically negatively influencing the intended subjects of propaganda, compromising their objectivity.{{Citation needed|reason=Cannot determine the source of objectification in a propaganda context|date=July 2018}} Blame is utilized as a [[social control|social-control]] technique.{{Citation needed|reason=Blame is not mentioned in the linked article, cannot determine source|date=July 2018}}

=== In organizations ===
{{Main|Blame in organizations}}
The flow of blame in an [[organization]] may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and [[integrity]]. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame coming from the top generates "fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and [[passive-aggressive]] responses from the bottom", with those at the bottom feeling powerless and lacking [[emotional safety]]. Employees have expressed that organizational blame culture made them fear prosecution for errors and/or accidents and thus unemployment, which may make them more reluctant to report accidents, since [[Trust (social science)|trust]] is crucial to encourage accident reporting. This makes it less likely that weak and/or long-term indicators of safety threats get picked up, thus preventing the organization from taking adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradict the [[best practices]] adopted by [[high reliability organization]]s.<ref name="Weinberg">{{cite journal |last1=McLendon |first1=J. |last2=Weinberg |first2=G.M. |title=Beyond blaming: congruence in large systems development projects |journal=IEEE Software |date=July 1996 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=33–42 |doi=10.1109/52.526830}}</ref><ref name="Milch">{{cite journal |last1=Milch |first1=Vibeke |last2=Laumann |first2=Karin |title=Interorganizational complexity and organizational accident risk: A literature review |journal=[[Safety Science]] |date=February 2016 |volume=82 |pages=9–17 |doi=10.1016/j.ssci.2015.08.010 |hdl=11250/2452901 |type=Review|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Organisational chaos, such as confused roles and responsibilities, is strongly associated with blame culture and [[workplace bullying]].<ref name="Milch" /><ref name="Rudge2016">{{cite book |last1=Rudge |first1=Trudy |title=(Re)Thinking Violence in Health Care Settings: A Critical Approach |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317189190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6fO_CwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> Blame culture promotes a [[Risk aversion|risk aversive]] approach, which prevent organizations and their agents from adequately assessing risks.<ref name="Milch" /><ref name="Rudge2016" /><ref name="Hollnagel2019">{{cite book |last1=Hollnagel |first1=Erik |last2=Braithwaite |first2=Jeffrey |title=Resilient Health Care |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781317065166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20qjDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

According to [[Mary Douglas]], blame is systematically used in the micro-politics of institutions, with three latent functions: explaining disasters, justifying allegiances, and stabilizing existing institutional regimes. Within a politically stable regime, blame tends to be asserted on the weak or unlucky one, but in a less stable regime, blame shifting may involve a battle between rival factions. Douglas was interested in how blame stabilizes existing power structures within institutions or social groups. She devised a two-dimensional typology of institutions, the first attribute being named "group", which is the strength of boundaries and social cohesion, the second "grid", the degree and strength of the hierarchy. According to Douglas, blame will fall on different entities depending on the institutional type. For markets, blame is used in power struggles between potential leaders. In [[Bureaucracy|bureaucracies]], blame tends to flow downwards and is attributed to a failure to follow rules. In a [[clan]], blame is asserted on outsiders or involves allegations of [[Betrayal|treachery]], to suppress dissidence and strengthen the group's ties. In the 4th type, isolation, the individuals are facing the competitive pressures of the marketplace alone; in other words, there is a condition of fragmentation with a loss of [[social cohesion]], potentially leading to feelings of powerlessness and [[fatalism]], and this type was renamed by various other authors into "donkey jobs". It is suggested that the progressive changes in managerial practices in healthcare is leading to an increase in donkey jobs.<ref name="Rudge2016" />

The requirement of accountability and transparency, assumed to be key for good governance, worsen the behaviors of blame avoidance, both at the individual and institutional levels,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hinterleitner |first1=Markus |last2=Sager |first2=Fritz |title=Anticipatory and reactive forms of blame avoidance: of foxes and lions |journal=European Political Science Review |date=26 May 2016 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=587–606 |doi=10.1017/S1755773916000126|doi-access=free }}</ref> as is observed in various domains such as politics<ref name="Hood2007">{{cite journal|last1=Hood|first1=Christopher|date=June 2007|title=What happens when transparency meets blame-avoidance?|journal=Public Management Review|volume=9|issue=2|pages=191–210|doi=10.1080/14719030701340275|s2cid=154987310 }}</ref> and healthcare.<ref name="McGivern2010">
{{cite journal|last=McGivern|first=Gerry|author2=Fischer, Michael|year=2010|title=Medical regulation, spectacular transparency and the blame business|journal=Journal of Health Organization and Management|volume=24|issue=6|pages=597–610|doi=10.1108/14777261011088683|pmid=21155435}}</ref> Indeed, institutions tend to be risk-averse and blame-averse, and where the management of societal risks (the threats to society) and institutional risks (threats to the organizations managing the societal risks)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rothstein |first1=Henry |title=The institutional origins of risk: A new agenda for risk research |journal=Health, Risk & Society |date=September 2006 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=215–221 |doi=10.1080/13698570600871646 |s2cid=146426570 |type=Editorial |postscript=. Used only for clarifying what are societal risks and institutional risks}}</ref> are not aligned, there may be organizational pressures to prioritize the management of institutional risks at the expense of societal risks.<ref name="Rothstein2006">{{cite journal |last1=Rothstein |first1=Henry |last2=Huber |first2=Michael |last3=Gaskell |first3=George |title=A theory of risk colonization: The spiralling regulatory logics of societal and institutional risk |journal=Economy and Society |date=February 2006 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=91–112 |doi=10.1080/03085140500465865|s2cid=143932088 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/2675/1/Risk_colonisation_PDF_TODAY.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Risk Regulation Under Pressure">{{cite journal |last1=Hood |first1=Christopher |last2=Rothstein |first2=Henry |s2cid=154316481 |title=Risk Regulation Under Pressure |journal=Administration & Society |date=26 July 2016 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=21–53 |doi=10.1177/00953990122019677|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/335/1/Admin_Soc_BPR_2001_02_02nd_FINAL.pdf }}</ref> Furthermore, "blame-avoidance behaviour at the expense of delivering core business is a well-documented organizational rationality".<ref name="Rothstein2006" /> The willingness of maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Busuioc |first1=E. Madalina |last2=Lodge |first2=Martin |s2cid=143427109 |title=The Reputational Basis of Public Accountability |journal=Governance |date=April 2016 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=247–263 |doi=10.1111/gove.12161|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/62494/1/Lodge_Reputational%20basis_2016.pdf }}</ref> This may produce a "risk colonization", where institutional risks are transferred to societal risks, as a strategy of [[risk management]].<ref name="Rothstein2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Louise |last2=Luning |first2=Pieternel A |last3=Wallace |first3=Carol A |title=The Evolution and Cultural Framing of Food Safety Management Systems—Where From and Where Next? |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |date=19 September 2019 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=1770–1792 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12484 |pmid=33336962 |type=Review|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Courtney |last2=Abraham |first2=John |title=A comparative analysis of risk management strategies in European Union and United States pharmaceutical regulation |journal=Health, Risk & Society |date=August 2011 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=413–431 |doi=10.1080/13698575.2011.596191 |s2cid=71466498 |type=Review}}</ref> Some researchers argue that there is "no risk-free lunch" and "no blame-free risk", an analogy to the "[[no free lunch]]" adage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hood |first1=Christopher |title=The Risk Game and the Blame Game |journal=Government and Opposition |date=28 March 2014 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=15–37 |doi=10.1111/1477-7053.00085|s2cid=143397032 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Attribution (psychology)]]
* [[Attribution bias]]
* [[Causality]]
* [[Culpability]]
* [[Denial]]
* [[Fall guy]]
* [[Fundamental attribution error]]
* [[Moral responsibility]]
* [[Praise]]
* [[Presumption of guilt]] 
* [[Psychological projection]]
* "Result(s)-oriented work environment" or "result(s)-only work environment" ([[ROWE]])
* [[Scapegoating]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Douglas, Tom. ''Scapegoats: Transferring Blame'', London-New York, Routledge, 1995.
* Wilcox, Clifton W. ''Scapegoat: Targeted for Blame'', Denver, Outskirts Press, 2009.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Blame}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.outofthefog.net/CommonBehaviors/Blaming.html Blaming]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-responsibility/ Moral Responsibility] (also on praise and blame), in the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [https://www.iep.utm.edu/p/praise.htm Praise and Blame], in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]

{{Aspects of organizations}}

[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Concepts in ethics]]
[[Category:Behavior]]
[[Category:Accountability]]
[[Category:Moral psychology]]