Editing Book of Judges

{{Short description|Seventh book of the Bible}}
{{About|the biblical book||Judge (disambiguation)}}
{{Judges |width=22.0em}}
{{Tanakh OT|Nevi'im|historical}}
[[File:Figures Samson meurt en faisant mourir ses ennemis.jpg|thumb|[[Samson]]]]

The '''Book of Judges''' ({{langx|he|ספר שופטים|Sefer Shoftim}}; {{langx|el|Κριταί}}; {{langx|la|Liber Iudicum}}) is the seventh book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. In the narrative of the Hebrew Bible, it covers the time between the conquest described in the [[Book of Joshua]] and the establishment of a kingdom in the [[Books of Samuel]], during which [[Hebrew Bible judges|Biblical judges]] served as temporary leaders.{{sfn|Niditch|2008|pp=2–3}}

The stories follow a consistent pattern: the people are unfaithful to [[Yahweh]]; he therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies; the people repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy, which he sends in the form of a leader or champion (a "judge"; see ''[[shophet]]''); the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression and they prosper, but soon they fall again into unfaithfulness and the cycle is repeated.{{sfn|Soggin|1981|p=4}} The pattern also expresses a repeating cycle of wars. But in the last verse (21:25) there is a hint that the cycle can be broken—with the establishment of a monarchy.

While most contemporary critical scholars reject the historical accuracy of the Book of Judges, some argue that it may preserve echoes of early [[historical memory]], [[social structure]], or [[chiefdom]]-level [[warfare]].
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== Contents ==
Judges can be divided into three major sections: a double prologue (chapters 1:1–3:6), a main body (3:7–16:31), and a double epilogue (17–21).{{sfn|Guest|2003|p=190}}

=== Prologue ===
{{Further|Judges 1}}
The book opens with the Israelites in the land that God has promised to them, but worshiping "foreign gods" instead of [[Yahweh]], the God of Israel, and with the [[Canaanites]] still present everywhere.{{sfn|Spieckerman|2001|p=341}} Chapters 1:1–2:5 are thus a confession of failure, while chapters 2:6–3:6 are a major summary and reflection from the [[Deuteronomist]]s.{{sfn|Niditch|2008|pp=2–3}}

The opening thus sets out the pattern which the stories in the main text will follow:{{sfn|Guest|2003|p=190}}
# Israel "does evil in the eyes of [[Yahweh]]",
# The people are given into the hands of their enemies and cry out to Yahweh,
# Yahweh raises up a leader,
# The "spirit of Yahweh" comes upon the leader,
# The leader manages to defeat the enemy, and
# Peace is regained.

Once peace is regained, Israel does right and receives Yahweh's blessings for a time, but relapses later into doing evil and repeats the pattern above.

Judges follows the [[Book of Joshua]] and opens with a reference to [[Joshua]]'s death.<ref>{{bibleverse||Joshua|24:29|HE}}; cf. {{bibleverse||Judges|1:1|HE}}</ref> The [[Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges]] suggests that "the death of Joshua may be regarded as marking the division between the period of conquest and the period of occupation", the latter being the focus of the Book of Judges.<ref name = biblehub>[http://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/judges/1.htm Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges] on Judges 1, accessed 9 October 2016.</ref> The Israelites meet, probably at the sanctuary at [[Gilgal]] or at [[Shechem]],<ref>following on from {{bibleverse||Joshua|24:1–33|HE}}</ref> and ask the Lord who should be first (in order of time, not of rank) to secure the land they are to occupy.<ref name = biblehub />

=== Main text ===
[[File:12 Tribes of Israel Map.svg|thumb|235px|A map of the tribes of Israel]]
The main text gives accounts of six major judges and their struggles against the oppressive kings of surrounding nations, as well as the story of [[Abimelech (Judges)|Abimelech]], an Israelite leader (a judge [shofet] in the sense of "chieftain") who oppresses his own people.<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Judges|3:11–16:31|HE}}</ref> The cyclical pattern set out in the prologue is readily apparent at the beginning, but as the stories progress it begins to disintegrate, mirroring the disintegration of the world of the Israelites.{{sfn|Guest|2003|p=190}} Although some scholars consider the stories not to be presented in chronological order,{{sfn|Amit|2004|p=508}} the judges [[Fabula and syuzhet|in the order in which they appear in the text]] are:
* [[Othniel]] (3:9–11) vs. [[Cushan-Rishathaim]], King of [[Aram-Naharaim|Aram]]; Israel has 40 years of peace until the death of Othniel. (The statement that Israel has a certain period of peace after each judge is a recurrent theme.)
* [[Ehud]] (3:11–29) vs. [[Eglon (king)|Eglon]] of [[Moab]]
* [[Deborah]], directing [[Barak]] the army captain (4–5), vs. [[Jabin]] of [[Tel Hazor|Hazor]] (a city in [[Canaan]]) and [[Sisera]], his captain ([[Battle of Mount Tabor (biblical)|Battle of Mount Tabor]])
* [[Gideon]] (6–8) vs. [[Midian]], [[Amalek]], and the "children of the East" (apparently desert tribes)
* [[Jephthah]] (11–12:7) vs. the [[Ammon]]ites
* [[Samson]] (13–16) vs. the [[Philistines]]

There are also brief glosses on six minor judges: [[Shamgar]] (Judges 3:31; after Ehud), [[Tola (biblical figure)|Tola]] and [[Jair]] (10:1–5), [[Ibzan]], [[Elon (Judges)|Elon]], and [[Abdon (Judges)|Abdon]] (12:8–15; after Jephthah).{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|pp=563–65}} Some scholars have inferred that the minor judges were actual adjudicators, whereas the major judges were leaders and did not actually make legal judgments.{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|p=564}} The only major judge described as making legal judgments is Deborah (4:4).{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|p=561}}

=== Epilogue ===
By the end of Judges, Yahweh's treasures are used to make idolatrous images, the Levites become corrupt, the [[tribe of Dan]] conquers a remote village instead of the Canaanite cities, and the [[tribes of Israel]] make war on the [[tribe of Benjamin]], their own kinsmen.{{sfn |Guest|2003|pp= 202–4}}  The book concludes with two appendices,<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Judges|17–21|HE}}</ref> stories which do not feature a specific judge:{{sfn|Soggin|1981|p=5}}
* [[Micah's Idol]] (Judges 17–18), how the tribe of Dan conquers its territory in the north.<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Judges|17–18|HE}}</ref>
* [[Levite's concubine]] (Judges 19–21): the gang rape of a Levite's concubine leads to war between the Benjamites and the other Israelite tribes, after which hundreds of virgins are taken captive as wives for the decimated Benjamites.<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Judges|19–21|HE}})</ref>
Despite their appearance at the end of the book, certain characters (like [[Jonathan (Judges)|Jonathan]], the grandson of [[Moses]]) and idioms present in the epilogue show that the events therein "must have taken place... early in the period of the judges."{{sfn|Davis|Wolf|2002|pp=328–61}}

=== Chronology ===
Judges contains a chronology of its events, assigning a number of years to each interval of judgment and peace. It is overtly schematic and was likely introduced at a later period.{{sfn|Hughes|1990|pp=70–77}}

===Manuscript sources===
Four of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] feature parts of Judges: 1QJudg, found in [[Qumran Caves|Qumran Cave 1]]; 4QJudg<sup>a</sup> and 4QJudg<sup>b</sup>, found in [[Qumran Caves|Qumran Cave 4]]; and XJudges, a fragment discovered in 2001.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40387582|title=A New Fragment of Xjudges|author1=Eshel, Esther|author2=Eshel, Hanan|author3=Broshi, Magen|year=2007|journal=Dead Sea Discoveries|volume=14|issue=3|pages=354–358|doi=10.1163/156851707782177468|jstor=40387582|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=Rezetko>{{cite journal |last=Rezetko |first=Robert |title=The Qumran Scrolls of the Book of Judges: Literary Formation, Textual Criticism, and Historical Linguistics |journal=[[Journal of Hebrew Scriptures]] |year=2013 |volume=13 |issue=2 |page=9 |doi=10.5508/jhs.2013.v13.a2 |doi-access=free |hdl=2066/120003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The earliest complete surviving copy of the Book of Judges in [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] is in the [[Aleppo Codex]] (10th century CE).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-sep-28-adfg-aleppo28-story.html|title=Scholars search for pages of ancient Hebrew Bible|date=September 28, 2008|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aleppocodex.org/links/9.html|title=The Aleppo Codex|website=www.aleppocodex.org|access-date=2020-08-29|archive-date=2012-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115105923/http://www.aleppocodex.org/links/9.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation) is found in early manuscripts such as the Codex Colberto-Sarravianus (c. AD 400; contains many lacunae) and the Fragment of Leipzig (c. AD 500).<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2009 |title=A New English Translation of the Septuagint |url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/07-judges-nets.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008003053/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/07-judges-nets.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-08 |url-status=live |access-date=21 October 2022 |website=University of Pennsylvania}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rezetko |first=Robert |title=The Qumran Scrolls of the Book of Judges: Literary Formation, Textual Criticism, and Historical Linguistics |url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/120003/120003.pdf |access-date=21 October 2022 |website=Radboud University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuVfrzcd9xMC&q=%22leipzig+fragment+%22&pg=PA284|title=Targum and Testament Revisited: Aramaic Paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible: A Light on the New Testament, Second Edition|first=Martin|last=McNamara|date=July 26, 2010|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=9780802862754|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pefhAAAAQBAJ&q=%22Codex+Colberto-Sarravianus+%22+judges&pg=PA729|title=The Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism|first=Robert B.|last=Waltz|publisher=Robert B. Waltz|via=Google Books}}</ref>

== Composition ==
[[File:Maarten van Heemskerck 024.jpg|thumb|upright|"[[Adam and Eve/Gideon and the Fleece|Gideon thanks God for the miracle of the dew]]", painting by Maarten van Heemskerck (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg)]]
{{See also|Judges 1#Composition and historicity|Textual variants in the Book of Judges}}

=== Historicity ===
[[Biblical archaeology]] in the 19th and 20th centuries supported viewing Judges as historical, but while some scholars still see echoes of early history, most critical scholars today reject its historical accuracy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Mark S. |last2=Bloch-Smith |first2=Elizabeth M. |title=Judges 1: A Commentary on Judges 1:1–10:5 |year=2021 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0800660628 |page=18-19 |quote=[T]he nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed the use of ‘biblical archaeology’ to support the view that Judges represents Israel's historical reality in the premonarchic period, the era that the book purports to relate. The result was an optimistic representation of Judges' historical background, as represented by John Bright's History of Israel, in turn reflected in Robert G. Boling's Judges commentary. While a half-century has passed since the halcyon days of biblical historicism, some scholars continue to see in Judges signs of an early period. For example, Israel Finkelstein suggests that a ‘vague memory’ of a late Iron I/very early Iron II conflict can be gleaned from the story of Ehud. By contrast, most critical scholars today would claim no such early historical record in Judges.}}</ref>

Scholars hold a variety of opinions about the dating and historicity of the Book of Judges.{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|pp=563–566}}{{sfn|Alter|2013|p=105}} Some scholars doubt whether any of the people named as judges existed, while others still find truth throughout the book.<ref>{{cite book |title=Misusing Scripture: What are Evangelicals Doing with the Bible? |last=Dever |first=William G. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-000-85301-8 |editor-last=Elliott |editor-first=Mark |page=PT113 |chapter=Christian Fundamentalism, Faith, and Archaeology |quote=the immediately following (!) book of Judges has the ring of truth for an archaeologist on every page. |editor-last2=Atkinson |editor-first2=Kenneth |editor-last3=Rezetko |editor-first3=Robert |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGuwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113&dq=book+of+judges+has+the+ring+of+truth}}</ref> For [[Israel Finkelstein]], the historical reliability of the Book of Judges cannot be assessed by the possible inclusion of heroic tales from earlier eras because it is impossible to know to what extent those tales are based on authentic memories of local heroes and wars preserved over the centuries in the form of epic poems or popular folktales.<ref>Finkelstein, Israel (2001). ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. (New York: Free Press), p 120.</ref> [[Lester Grabbe]] generally considers the Book of Judges too problematic to use as a historical source for much the same reasons, but acknowledges that an actual historical core can be found in the Judges stories and cannot be ruled out by archeological evidence.<ref>Grabbe, Lester (2007). ''Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?'' (London & New York: T & T Clark), p 99-100.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Knauf |first=Ernst Axel |editor-last=Grabbe |editor-first=Lester L. |title=The Hebrew Bible and History: Critical Readings |chapter=History in Judges |year=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0567672698 |pages=213–221 |doi=10.5040/9780567672698.0019 |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9780567672698&tocid=b-9780567672698-2318 }}</ref><ref> Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-0-567-67043-4}} p. 118: "The book is generally too problematic to use as a historical source." p. 117–118: "Two points relating to history, however, can be made about the book of Judges: first, the picture of a tribal society without a unified leadership engaging in uncoordinated local actions seems to fit the society of the hill country in IA I, as evidenced by the archaeology....Secondly, perhaps the one exception to the historical ambiguity of the text is the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 (cf. Knauf 2005b)."</ref>

Among anthropologists, few believe in a leap from independent tribes to monarchy. Most accept an intermediate stage of chiefdom as described in the Book of Judges. These chiefdoms were inter-tribal confederacies temporarily formed for the purpose of war and led by military chief, called Judge.<ref>[[Robert D. Miller|Miller, Robert D]]. (2005). ''Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries''. (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co), p XV, 6-8.</ref><ref>Portugali, Yuval (1994). ''From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel''. (Eds. Finkelstein, Israel & Naaman, Nadav, Washington: Biblical Archeology Society), p 214, https://archive.org/details/fromnomadismtomo0000unse/page/214/mode/2up</ref> Historian Max Ostrovsky finds the [[Ban (law)|law of bun]] ([[Herem (war or property)|herem]]) a characteristic element of chiefdom-level warfare worldwide, wherever culture reached the level of chiefdom. Similar buns were practiced before the introduction of slavery and empire which are more characteristic of monarchies. Hence the accounts of the Book of Judges probably reflect historical reality.<ref>Ostrovsky, Max (2006). ''The Hyperbola of the World Order''. (Lanham: University Press of America), p 299-300.</ref>

=== Sources ===
The basic source for Judges was a collection of loosely connected stories about tribal heroes who saved the people in battle.{{sfn|Knight|1995|p=67}} This original "book of saviours" made up of the stories of [[Ehud]], [[Jael]] and parts of [[Gideon]], had already been enlarged and transformed into "wars of Yahweh" before being given the final Deuteronomistic revision.{{sfn|Soggin|1981|pp=5–6}} In the 20th century, the first part of the prologue (chapters 1:1–2:5) and the two parts of the epilogue (17–21) were commonly seen as miscellaneous collections of fragments tacked onto the main text, and the second part of the prologue (2:6–3:6) as an introduction composed expressly for the book.{{sfn|Guest|2003|pp=201–02}}

More recently, this view has been challenged, and there is an increasing willingness to see Judges as the work of a single individual, working by carefully selecting, reworking and positioning the source material to introduce and conclude his themes.{{sfn|Guest|2003|pp=201–02}} Archaeologist [[Israel Finkelstein]] proposed that the author(s) of the "book of saviours" collected these folk tales in the time of King [[Jeroboam II]] to argue that the king's [[Nimshi]]de origins, which appear to originate in the eastern [[Jezreel Valley]], were part of the "core" territory of Israel.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=[[Matthew J. Adams]], [[Israel Finkelstein]] |date=24 June 2021 |title=Episode Twenty-One: Heroic Stories in the Book of Judges |language=en |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gmSMAuH7sA |access-date=26 September 2023 |archive-url= |archive-date= |format=video |time=31:33 |location=Jerusalem |publisher=W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research}}</ref>

=== The Deuteronomistic History ===
A statement repeated throughout the epilogue, "In those days there was no king in Israel"<ref>{{bibleverse||Judges|17:6|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Judges|18:1|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Judges|19:1|HE}}, and {{bibleverse-nb||Judges|21:25|HE}}</ref> implies a date in the monarchic period for the redaction (editing) of Judges.{{sfn|Malamat|1971|p=132}} Twice, this statement is accompanied with the statement "every man did that which was right in his own eyes", implying that the redactor is pro-monarchy,<ref>{{bibleverse||Judges|17:6|HE}} and {{bibleverse-nb||Judges|21:25|HE}}</ref> and the epilogue, in which the [[tribe of Judah]] is assigned a leadership role, implies that this redaction took place in Judah.{{sfn|Davis|Wolf|2002|p=328}}

Since the second half of the 20th century most scholars have agreed with [[Martin Noth]]'s thesis that the books of [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], Judges, [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Kings|Kings]] form parts of a single work.{{sfn|Knoppers|2000a|p=1}} Noth maintained that the history was written in the early [[Babylonian captivity|Exilic period]] (6th century BCE) in order to demonstrate how Israel's history was worked out in accordance with the theology expressed in the book of Deuteronomy (which thus provides the name "Deuteronomistic").{{sfn|Walton|2009|pp=169–70}} Noth believed that this history was the work of a single author, living in the mid-6th century BCE, selecting, editing and composing from his sources to produce a coherent work.{{sfn|Knoppers|2000b|p=119}} [[Frank Moore Cross]] later proposed that an early version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in [[Josiah]]'s time (late 7th century BCE); this first version, Dtr1, was then revised and expanded to create a second edition, that identified by Noth, and which Cross labelled Dtr2.{{sfn|Eynikel|1996|p=14}}

Scholars agree that the Deuteronomists' hand can be seen in Judges through the book's cyclical nature: the Israelites fall into idolatry, God punishes them for their sins with oppression by foreign peoples, the Israelites cry out to God for help, and God sends a judge to deliver them from the foreign oppression. After a period of peace, the cycle recurs. Scholars also suggest that the Deuteronomists also included the humorous and sometimes disparaging commentary found in the book such as the story of the [[tribe of Ephraim]] who could not pronounce the word "''[[shibboleth]]''" correctly (12:5–6).{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|p=562}}

== Themes and genre ==
[[File:Judges Bib Germ 1485 d.1 375.jpg|thumb|An illustrated page from the Book of Judges in a German Bible, dated 1485 (Bodleian Library)]]
The essence of Deuteronomistic theology is that Israel has entered into a [[covenant (biblical)|covenant]] (a treaty, a binding agreement) with the God Yahweh, under which they agree to accept Yahweh as their God (hence the phrase "God of Israel") and Yahweh promises them a land where they can live in peace and prosperity. Deuteronomy contains the laws by which Israel is to live in the promised land, Joshua chronicles the conquest of [[Canaan]], the promised land, and its allotment among the tribes, Judges describes the settlement of the land, Samuel the consolidation of the land and people under [[David]], and Kings the destruction of kingship and loss of the land.{{sfn|Knight|1995|p=61}} The final tragedy described in Kings is the result of Israel's failure to uphold its part of the covenant: faithfulness to Yahweh brings success, economic, military and political, but unfaithfulness brings defeat and oppression.{{sfn|Niditch|2008|p=11}}

This is the theme played out in Judges: the people are unfaithful to Yahweh and He therefore delivers them into the hands of their enemies; the people then repent and entreat Yahweh for mercy, which He sends in the form of a judge; the judge delivers the Israelites from oppression, but after a while they fall into unfaithfulness again and the cycle is repeated.{{sfn|Soggin|1981|p=4}} Israel's [[apostasy]] is repeatedly invoked by the author as the cause of threats to Israel. The oppression of the Israelites is due to their turning to Canaanite gods, breaking the covenant and "doing evil in the sight of the lord".<ref name="BullockJr.2007">{{cite book|author1=C. Hassell Bullock|author2=David M. Howard Jr.|author3=Herbert Wolf|title=Introduction to the Old Testament, set of four books (Prophetic, Poetic, Pentateuch, Historical)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0MELqlrqtsAC|date=1 September 2007|publisher=Moody Publishers|isbn=978-0-8024-8286-0|page=PT116}}</ref>

Further themes are present: the "sovereign freedom of Yahweh" (God does not always do what is expected of him); the "[[satire|satirisation]] of foreign kings" (who consistently underestimate Israel and Yahweh); the concept of the "flawed agent" (judges who are not adequate to the task before them) and the disunity of the Israelite community, which gathers pace as the stories succeed one another.{{sfn|Guest|2003|pp=193–94}}

The book is as intriguing for the themes it leaves out as for what it includes: the [[Ark of the Covenant]], which is given so much importance in the stories of [[Moses]] and [[Joshua]], is almost entirely missing,{{Efn|The ark of the covenant is mentioned in passing in {{bibleverse||Judges|20:27|HE}}.}} cooperation between the various tribes is limited, and there is no mention of a central shrine for worship and only limited reference to a [[High Priest of Israel]] (the office to which [[Aaron]] was appointed at the end of [[the Exodus]] story).{{Efn|[[Phinehas]] the son of [[Eleazar]], the son of Aaron is mentioned in passing in {{bibleverse||Judges|20:28|HE}}.}}{{sfn|Matthews|2004|p=4}}

Although Judges probably had a monarchist redaction (see above), the book contains passages and themes that represent anti-monarchist views. One of the major themes of the book is Yahweh's sovereignty and the importance of being loyal to Him and His laws above all other gods and sovereigns. Indeed, the authority of the judges comes not through prominent dynasties nor through elections or appointments, but rather through the Spirit of God.{{sfn|Alter|2013|p=106}}

Anti-monarchist theology is most apparent toward the end of the Gideon cycle in which the Israelites beg Gideon to create a dynastic monarchy over them and Gideon refuses.{{sfn|Davis|Wolf|2002|pp=326–27}} The rest of Gideon's lifetime saw peace in the land, but after Gideon's death, his son Abimelech ruled [[Shechem]] as a [[Machiavelli]]an tyrant guilty for much bloodshed (see chapters 8 and 9). However, the last few chapters of Judges (specifically, the stories of Samson, Micah, and Gibeah) highlight the violence and [[anarchy]] of decentralized rule.{{sfn|Alter|2013|pp=107–9}}

Judges is remarkable for the number of female characters who "play significant roles, active and passive, in the narratives."{{sfn|Bacon|Sperling|2007|p= 561}} Rabbi [[Joseph Telushkin]] wrote,
{{blockquote|Most of the great women in the Bible either are married to a great man or related to one. ... A rare exception to this tradition is the prophetess and judge Deborah, perhaps the Bible's greatest woman figure. Deborah stands exclusively on her own merits. The only thing we know about her personal life is the name of her husband, Lapidot.{{sfn|Telushkin|1997|p=58}}}}

== See also ==
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
* [[Tanakh]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Robert Alter |last=Alter |first=Robert |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QuaFlf7_vbwC |title=Ancient Israel: The Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings |location= New York |publisher= W. W. Norton & Co |year=2013 |isbn= 978-0-39324027-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Amit |first=Yairah |year=2004 |chapter=''Judges'': Introduction and Annotations |title=The Jewish Study Bible |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Adele |editor-last2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Zvi |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=508–57}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Bacon |first1=Gershon |last2=Sperling |first2=S. David |year=2007 |article=Judges (Heb. שופטים), Book of |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]] |edition=2nd |volume=11 |pages=561–66}}
* {{cite book | first = Marc Zvi | last = Brettler |title=The Book of Judges |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9j9Jbcl6g38C&pg=PA107 |year= 2002 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-16216-6|page= 107}}
* {{cite book | first = Philip R. |last = Davies |title= In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5D5GNju1-ggC&pg=PA26|year=1995 |publisher=A&C Black|isbn= 978-1-85075-737-5|page= 26}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Davis |first1=John J. |last2=Wolf |first2=Herbert |year=2002 |chapter=''Judges'': Introduction and Annotations |title=Zondervan NIV Study Bible |edition=revised |editor-last=Barker |editor-first=Kenneth |place=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=Zondervan |pages=326–63}}
* {{Cite book |last= Eynikel |first= Erik |title= The reform of King Josiah and the composition of the Deuteronomistic history |publisher= Brill |year=1996|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl9dYJH_xUYC |isbn= 978-90-04-10266-8}}
* {{Cite book |last= Guest |first= P. Deryn |chapter= Judges |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA190 |editor1-first = James D. G. | editor1-last = Dunn |editor2-first = John William |editor2-last = Rogerson |title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher= Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1 = Hughes |first1 = Jeremy |title = Secrets of the Times: Myth and History in Biblical Chronology |publisher     = A&C Black |year = 1990 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vPg2cvQLwHAC |isbn = 978-0-56762930-2}}
* {{Cite book|last= Knight |first= Douglas A|chapter= Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomists |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SNLN1nEEys0C |editor1-first = James Luther | editor1-last = Mays |editor2-first = David L. | editor2-last = Petersen |editor3-first =Kent Harold | editor3-last = Richards|title= Old Testament Interpretation |publisher=T&T Clark |year=1995|isbn= 978-0-567-29289-6}}
* {{Cite book|last= Knoppers |first= Gary |chapter= Introduction |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CoHhPAKgETkC |editor1-first = Gary N. | editor1-last = Knoppers |editor2-first = J. Gordon | editor2-last = McConville|title= Reconsidering Israel and Judah: recent studies on the Deuteronomistic history|publisher= Eisenbrauns|date= 2000a |isbn=978-1-57506-037-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Knoppers|first= Gary|chapter=Is There a Future for the Deuteronomistic History?|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjfJHpNXUusC |editor=Thomas Romer|title= The Future of the Deuteronomistic History |publisher=Leuven University Press|date=2000b |isbn= 978-90-429-0858-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Malamat|first=A.|chapter=Chapter VII: The Period of the Judges|year=1971|title=The World History of the Jewish People|volume=3|place=Givatayim, Israel|publisher=Rutgers University Press|pages=129–63}}
* {{Cite book|last=Matthews|first= Victor Harold|title= Judges and Ruth|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 2004|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vU6DjPDeUUEC|isbn= 978-0-521-00066-6}}
* {{Cite book|last= Miller |first= J Maxwell|author-link=J. Maxwell Miller (biblical scholar)|chapter=The Ancient Near East and Archaeology |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SNLN1nEEys0C|editor1-first=James Luther | editor1-last = Mays |editor2-first=David L. | editor2-last = Petersen |editor3-first=Kent Harold | editor3-last = Richards|title= Old Testament Interpretation|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1995|isbn= 978-0-567-29289-6}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Moore |first1 = Megan Bishop |last2 = Kelle |first2 = Brad E. |title = Biblical History and Israel's Past |year = 2011 |publisher = Eerdmans |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC |isbn = 978-0-80286260-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Niditch |first= Susan|title=Judges: a commentary |publisher= Westminster John Knox Press|year= 2008|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BDGxWlVpQPkC&pg=PA291 |isbn= 978-0-664-22096-9}}
* {{Cite book|last= Perdue |first= Leo G|chapter= Preface: The Hebrew Bible in Current Research |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=41_0okLzQJkC&pg=PA337 |editor1-first =Leo G. | editor1-last = Perdue|title=The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible |publisher= Blackwell |year= 2001|isbn= 978-0-631-21071-9}}
* {{Cite book|last1=De Pury|first1= Albert|last2=Romer|first2= Thomas|chapter= Deuteronomistic Historiography: History of Research and Related Issues |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rex7ASbY_bkC&pg=PA3|editor= Albert de Pury|editor-link= Albert de Pury|editor2=Thomas Romer |editor3-first =Jean-Daniel | editor3-last = Macchi |title= Israël constructs its history: Deuteronomistic historiography in recent research |publisher= Sheffield Academic Press|year= 2000 |isbn= 978-1-84127-099-9}}
* {{Cite book|last= Soggin |first= Alberto |title=Judges|publisher= Westminster John Knox Press |year= 1981 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5JWz4jhebW8C |isbn= 978-0-664-22321-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Spieckerman|first= Hermann|chapter=The Deuteronomistic History|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=41_0okLzQJkC&pg=PA337 |editor1-first = Leo G. | editor1-last = Perdue|title=The Blackwell companion to the Hebrew Bible |publisher= Blackwell|year= 2001|isbn= 978-0-631-21071-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Telushkin|first=Joseph|year=1997|author-link=Joseph Telushkin|title=Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible|place=New York|publisher=William Morrow & Co.}}
* {{cite book | first =Thomas L. | last = Thompson |title= Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA96 |date=1 January 2000|publisher= Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11943-7|page= 96}}
* {{Cite book|last=Van Seters|first= John |title=In search of history: historiography in the ancient world and the origins of biblical history |publisher= Eisenbrauns |year=1997|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0-skPdXtewwC&pg=PA406 |isbn= 978-1-57506013-2}}
* {{Cite book|last= Walton |first= John H. |chapter= The Deuteronomistic History |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FxFZxCIc8OoC&pg=PA169 |editor1-first = Andrew E. | editor1-last = Hill |editor2-first = John H. | editor2-last = Walton|title=A Survey of the Old Testament |publisher= Zondervan |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-0-310-22903-2}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|Judges (Bible)}}
{{Wiktionary|Judges}}

'''Original text'''
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0701.htm שֹּׁפְטִים – ''Shoftim'' – Judges] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] – English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
;Jewish translations
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0701.htm Judges at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15750 Shoftim – Judges (Judaica Press)] translation [with [[Rashi]]'s commentary] at Chabad.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140508061358/http://www.g-dcast.com/judges/ Book of Judges] (G-dcast interpretations)

'''Christian translations'''
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&version=NIV&passage=judges Judges at Bible Gateway] (various versions)
* [[s:Bible, King James, Judges|Judges at Wikisource]] (Authorised King James Version)
* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Judges |stitle=07 Judges}} Various versions

'''Articles'''
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=689&letter=J&search=Judges Book of Judges article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Judges, The Book of|volume=15|pages=538–540|first=Stanley Arthur|last=Cook|author-link=Stanley Arthur Cook}} A detailed description from an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] point of view.

'''Brief introduction'''
* [http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/FM.Wiley.Judges.pdf Book of Judges]
* {{eastons|title=Judges, Book of}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou | [[Nevi'im|History books]]|||}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] | rows = 2 }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Book of Samuel|Samuel]] | rows= 1 }}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Christianity|Christian]]<br />[[Old Testament]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] | rows= 1 }}
{{s-end}}

{{Book of Judges}}
{{Books of the Bible}}
{{The Bible and warfare|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Judges, Book Of}}
[[Category:Book of Judges| ]]
[[Category:8th-century BC books]]
[[Category:7th-century BC books]]
[[Category:6th-century BC books]]
 [[Category:Hebrew Bible judges|Book of Judges]]
 [[Category:Nevi'im|02]]
[[Category:Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Historical books]]