Editing Box jellyfish

{{short description|Class of cnidarians distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Box jellyfish
| image = Avispa marina cropped.png
| image2 = Cubozoas.JPG
| image_caption = ''[[Chironex]]'' sp.
| image2_caption = ''[[Carukia barnesi]]''
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|Middle Cambrian|present}}
| taxon = Cubozoa
| authority = [[Bernhard Werner|Werner]], 1973<ref name=Werner1973a>{{cite journal|author=Werner, B.|year=1973|title=New investigations on systematics and evolution of the class Scyphozoa and the phylum Cnidaria|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39301767.pdf|journal=Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory|volume=20|pages=35–61|doi=10.5134/175791|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks =  Orders
| subdivision =
* [[Carybdeida]]
* [[Chirodropida]]
}}
'''Box jellyfish''' (class '''Cubozoa''') are [[cnidaria]]n [[invertebrate]]s distinguished by their box-like (i.e., [[cube]]-shaped) body.<ref>{{OED|box jellyfish}}</ref> Some species of box [[jellyfish]] produce potent [[venom (poison)|venom]] delivered by contact with their tentacles. Stings from some species, including ''[[Chironex fleckeri]]'', ''[[Carukia barnesi]]'', ''[[Malo kingi]]'', and a few others, are extremely painful and often fatal to humans.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-11-20|title=Box Jelly|url=https://www.waikikiaquarium.org/experience/animal-guide/invertebrates/jellies/box-jellies/|access-date=2021-12-06|website=Waikīkī Aquarium|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Taxonomy and systematics ==
Historically, cubozoans were classified as an order of [[Scyphozoa]] until 1973, when they were put in their own class due to their unique biological cycle (lack of [[strobilation]]) and morphology.<ref name="Avian2021">{{cite book | last1=Avian | first1=Massimo | last2=Ramšak | first2=Andreja | editor-last=Schierwater | editor-first=Bernd | editor-last2=DeSalle | editor-first2=Rob | title=Invertebrate Zoology: A Tree of Life Approach | publisher=CRC Press | year=2021 | chapter=Chapter 10: Phylum Cnidaria: classes Scyphozoa, Cubzoa and Staurozoa | isbn=978-1-4822-3582-1 }}</ref>

At least 51 species of box jellyfish were known as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=135219 |title=WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Cubozoa|website=marinespecies.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-19}}</ref> These are grouped into two [[Order (biology)|orders]] and eight [[Family (biology)|families]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bentlage B, Cartwright P, Yanagihara AA, Lewis C, Richards GS, Collins AG | title = Evolution of box jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubzoa), a group of highly toxic invertebrates | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 277 | issue = 1680 | pages = 493–501 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 19923131 | pmc = 2842657 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2009.1707 }}</ref> A few new species have since been described, and it is likely that additional [[undescribed species]] remain.<ref name="Cyamaguchii" /><ref name="Cbranchi" /><ref name="Cbart" />

'''Cubozoa''' represents the smallest [[cnidaria]]n class with approximately 50 species.<ref>{{Cite report |last1=Holland |first1=Brenden |last2=Khramov |first2=Marat |last3=Crites |first3=Jennifer |title=Box Jellyfish (Cubozoa: Carybdeida) in Hawaiian Waters, and the First Record of Tripedalia cystophora in Hawai'i |url=https://www.academia.edu/9224340 |language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2022}}

Class '''Cubzoa'''
* Order [[Carybdeida]]
** Family [[Alatinidae]]
** Family [[Carukiidae]]
** Family [[Carybdeidae]]
** Family [[Tamoyidae]]
** Family [[Tripedaliidae]]
* Order [[Chirodropida]]
** Family [[Chirodropidae]]
** Family [[Chiropsalmidae]]
** Family [[Chiropsellidae]]

== Description ==
[[File:Haeckel Cubomedusae.jpg|thumb|150px|"Cubomedusae", from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904]]
The medusa form of a box jellyfish has a squarish, box-like bell, from which its name is derived. From each of the four lower corners of this hangs a short pedalium or stalk which bears one or more long, slender, hollow [[tentacle]]s. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates.<ref name=Ruppert>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-81-315-0104-7 |pages=153–154 }}</ref> As a result, box jellyfish can move more rapidly than other jellyfish; speeds of up to 1.5 metres per second have been recorded.<ref name=IZ>{{Cite book|author= Barnes, Robert D. |year=1982 |title= Invertebrate Zoology |publisher= Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|pages=139–149|isbn= 0-03-056747-5}}</ref>

In the center of the underside of the bell is a mobile appendage called the manubrium which somewhat resembles an elephant's trunk. At its tip is the mouth. The interior of the bell is known as the [[gastrovascular cavity]]. It is divided by four equidistant septa into a central stomach and four gastric pockets. The eight [[gonad]]s are located in pairs on either side of the four septa. The margins of the septa bear bundles of small gastric filaments which house [[nematocyst]]s and digestive glands and help to subdue [[Predation|prey]]. Each septum is extended into a septal funnel that opens onto the oral surface and facilitates the flow of fluid into and out of the animal.<ref name=Ruppert/>

[[File:Cubozoan visual system in Tripedalia cystophora.png|thumb|400px|The complex [[rhopalia]]l [[ocelli]] of ''[[Tripedalia cystophora]]'' ]]
The box jellyfish's nervous system is more developed than that of many other jellyfish. They possess a ring nerve at the base of the bell that coordinates their pulsing movements, a feature found elsewhere only in the [[crown jellyfish]]. Whereas some other jellyfish have simple pigment-cup [[Simple eye in invertebrates|ocelli]], box jellyfish are unique in the possession of true eyes, complete with [[retina]]s, [[cornea]]s and [[lens (anatomy)|lenses]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nilsson |first1=Dan-E. |last2=Gislén |first2=Lars |last3=Coates |first3=Melissa M. |last4=Skogh |first4=Charlotta |last5=Garm |first5=Anders |date=May 2005 |title=Advanced optics in a jellyfish eye |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03484 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=435 |issue=7039 |pages=201–205 |doi=10.1038/nature03484 |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Their eyes are set in clusters at the ends of sensory structures called [[Rhopalium|rhopalia]] which are connected to their ring nerve. Each rhopalium contains two image-forming lens eyes. The upper lens eye looks straight up out of the water with a field of view that matches [[Snell's window]]. In species such as ''[[Tripedalia cystophora]]'', the upper lens eye is used to navigate to their preferred habitats at the edges of mangrove lagoons by observing the direction of the tree canopy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Garm |first1=Anders |last2=Oskarsson |first2=Magnus |last3=Nilsson |first3=Dan-Eric |date=2011-05-10 |title=Box Jellyfish Use Terrestrial Visual Cues for Navigation |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=9 |pages=798–803 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.054 |issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free }}</ref> The lower lens eye is primarily used for object avoidance. Research has shown that the minimum visual angle for obstacles avoided by their lower lens eyes matches the half-widths of their receptive fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garm |first1=A |last2=O'Connor |first2=M |last3=Parkefelt |first3=L |last4=Nilsson |first4=D |date=October 15, 2007 |title=Visually guided obstacle avoidance in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora and Chiropsella bronzie |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/210/20/3616/17139/Visually-guided-obstacle-avoidance-in-the-box |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=210 |issue=20}}</ref> Each rhopalium also has two pit eyes on either side of the upper lens eye which likely act as mere light meters, and two slit eyes on either side of the lower lens eye which are likely used to detect vertical movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garm |first1=A. |last2=Andersson |first2=F. |last3=Nilsson |first3=Dan-E. |date=2008-03-01 |title=Unique structure and optics of the lesser eyes of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora |journal=Vision Research |language=en |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=1061–1073 |doi=10.1016/j.visres.2008.01.019 |issn=0042-6989|doi-access=free }}</ref> In total, the box jellyfish have six eyes on each of their four rhopalia, creating a total of 24 eyes. The rhopalia also feature a heavy crystal-like structure called a statolith, which, due to the flexibility of the rhopalia, keep the eyes oriented vertically regardless of the orientation of the bell.<ref name=":1" />

Box jellyfish also display complex, probably visually-guided behaviors such as obstacle avoidance and fast directional swimming.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal | vauthors = Skogh C, Garm A, Nilsson DE, Ekström P | title = Bilaterally symmetrical rhopalial nervous system of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora | journal = Journal of Morphology | volume = 267 | issue = 12 | pages = 1391–405 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 16874799 | doi = 10.1002/jmor.10472 }}</ref> Research indicates that, owing to the number of rhopalial nerve cells and their overall arrangement, visual processing and integration at least partly happen within the rhopalia of box jellyfish.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/> The complex nervous system supports a relatively advanced sensory system compared to other jellyfish, and box jellyfish have been described as having an active, fish-like behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nilsson DE, Gislén L, Coates MM, Skogh C, Garm A | title = Advanced optics in a jellyfish eye | journal = Nature | volume = 435 | issue = 7039 | pages = 201–5 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15889091 | doi = 10.1038/nature03484 | bibcode = 2005Natur.435..201N | s2cid = 4418085 }}</ref>

Depending on species, a fully grown box jellyfish can measure up to {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} along each box side ({{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} in diameter), and the tentacles can grow up to {{convert|3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in length. Its weight can reach {{convert|2|kg|lb|frac=2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="National Geographic Online">{{cite web|url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/box-jellyfish|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124062101/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/box-jellyfish/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 24, 2010|url-access=registration|title=Box Jellyfish, Box Jellyfish Pictures, Box Jellyfish Facts|date=10 September 2010 |publisher=NationalGeographic.com|access-date=2012-08-27}}</ref> However, the [[Nail (anatomy)|thumbnail]]-sized [[Irukandji_jellyfish|Irukandji]] is a box jellyfish, and lethal despite its small size. There are about 15 tentacles on each corner. Each tentacle has about 500,000 [[cnidocyte]]s, containing [[Cnidocyte|nematocyst]]s, a harpoon-shaped microscopic mechanism that injects venom into the victim.<ref name="1996-Williamson">{{Cite book|title=Venomous and poisonous marine animals: a medical and biological handbook|publisher=Surf Life Saving Australia and University of New North Wales Press Ltd|year=1996|isbn=0-86840-279-6|veditors=Williamson JA, Fenner PJ, Burnett JW, Rifkin J}}{{page needed|date=May 2014}}</ref> Many different kinds of nematocysts are found in cubozoans.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gershwin|first=L|year=2006|title=Nematocysts of the Cubozoa|url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/z01232p057f.pdf|journal=Zootaxa|issue=1232|pages=1–57}}</ref>

== Distribution ==
[[File:Indo-Pacific biogeographic region map-en.png|thumb|The Indo-Pacific ocean region]]
Although the notoriously dangerous species of box jellyfish are largely restricted to the tropical [[Indo-Pacific]] region, various species of box jellyfish can be found widely in tropical and subtropical oceans (between 42° N and 42 °S),<ref name="Avian2021" /> including the Atlantic Ocean and the east Pacific Ocean, with species as far north as [[California]] (''[[Carybdea confusa]]''), the Mediterranean Sea (''[[Carybdea marsupialis]]'')<ref name="Pohl2017">{{cite journal | author1=Straehler-Pohl, I. | author2=G.I. Matsumoto | author3=M.J. Acevedo | year=2017 | title=Recognition of the Californian cubozoan population as a new species Carybdea confusa n. sp. (Cnidaria, Cubozoa, Carybdeida) | journal=Plankton Benthos Res | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=129–138 | doi=10.3800/pbr.12.129| doi-access=free }}</ref> and Japan (such as ''[[Chironex yamaguchii]]''),<ref name="Cyamaguchii">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lewis C, Bentlage B |year=2009 |title=Clarifying the identity of the Japanese Habu-kurage, ''Chironex yamaguchii'', sp nov (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropida) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=2030 |pages=59–65 |url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2009/f/z02030p065f.pdf|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.2030.1.5 }}</ref> and as far south as South Africa (such as ''[[Carybdea branchi]]'')<ref name="Cbranchi">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gershwin L, Gibbons M |year=2009 |title=''Carybdea branchi'', sp. nov., a new box jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) from South Africa |journal=Zootaxa |volume=2088 |pages=41–50 |url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2009/f/z02088p050f.pdf|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.2088.1.5 |hdl=10566/369 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and New Zealand (such as ''[[Copula sivickisi]]'').<ref>{{cite book |author=Gershwin L |year=2009 |chapter=Staurozoa, Cubozoa, Scyphozoa (Cnidaria) |editor=Gordon D |title=New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity |volume=1: Kingdom Animalia}}{{page needed|date=May 2014}}</ref> Though box jellies are known to inhabit the Indo-Pacific region, there is very little collected data or studies proving this. It was only in 2014, that the first ever box jelly sightings (Tripedalia cystophora) were officially published in Australia, Thailand and the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pongsakchat |first1=Vanida |last2=Kidpholjaroen |first2=Pattaraporn |date=2020-06-28 |title=The Statistical Distributions of PM2.5 in Rayong and Chonburi Provinces, Thailand |journal=Asian Journal of Applied Sciences |volume=8 |issue=3 |doi=10.24203/ajas.v8i3.6153 |issn=2321-0893|doi-access=free }}</ref> There are three known species in Hawaiian waters, all from the genus ''[[Carybdea]]'': ''[[Carybdea alata|C. alata]]'', ''[[Carybdea rastoni|C. rastoni]]'', and ''[[Carybdea sivickisi|C. sivickisi]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.waikikiaquarium.org/experience/animal-guide/invertebrates/jellies/box-jellies/|title= Box Jelly|website=University of Hawai'i - Waikiki Aquarium|date= 20 November 2013|access-date= 28 June 2020}}</ref> Within these tropical and subtropical environments, box jellyfish tend to reside closer to shore. They have been spotted in near-shore habitats such as mangroves, coral reefs, kelp forests, and sandy beaches.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coates |first=Melissa M. |date=2003-08-01 |title=Visual Ecology and Functional Morphology of Cubozoa (Cnidaria) |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=542–548 |doi=10.1093/icb/43.4.542 |pmid=21680462 |issn=1540-7063|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Recently, in 2023, a new genus and species of box jellyfish was discovered in the Indo-Pacific region, specifically the Gulf of Thailand. Discovered and named after scientist [[Lisa-ann Gershwin]], this new species of box jellyfish, ''Gershwinia thailandensis'', is a member of the Carukiidae family. ''Gershwinia thailandensis'' is described as its own new species as it has sensory structures with specialized horns and lacks a common digestive system among box jelly, the stomach gastric phaecellae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ames |first1=Cheryl Lewis |last2=Macrander |first2=Jason |date=2016 |title=Evidence for an Alternative Mechanism of Toxin Production in the Box Jellyfish Alatina alata |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26370052 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=973–988 |jstor=26370052 |issn=1540-7063}}</ref> Due to this and other observations, structural and biological, ''Gershwinia thailandensis'' was accepted as a new species of box jellyfish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aungtonya |first1=Charatsee |last2=Xiao |first2=Jie |last3=Zhang |first3=Xuelei |last4=Wutthituntisil |first4=Nattanon |date=October 2018 |title=The genus Chiropsoides (Chirodropida: Chiropsalmidae) from the Andaman Sea, Thai waters |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13131-018-1311-4 |journal=Acta Oceanologica Sinica |language=en |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=119–125 |doi=10.1007/s13131-018-1311-4 |issn=0253-505X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Detection ==
[[File:E.Coli DNA Extraction.jpg|thumb|The technique used for the separation of eDNA from the water column using a cellulose nitrate membrane filter.]]
Cubozoans are widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions, yet the detection of these organisms can be quite difficult and costly due to a high amount of variation in their occurrence and abundance, their translucent body, two different life stages (medusa and polyp), and vast amounts of size variability within the different species in the class Cubozoa.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last1=Bolte |first1=Brett |last2=Goldsbury |first2=Julie |last3=Jerry |first3=Dean |last4=Kingsford |first4=Michael |date=2020-06-18 |title=Validation of eDNA as a viable method of detection for dangerous cubozoan jellyfish |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.22541/au.159248732.24076157 |access-date=2023-11-07 |doi=10.22541/au.159248732.24076157 }}</ref>

Understanding the ecological distribution of cubozoans can be difficult work, and some of the costly methods like visual observations, a variety of different nets, light attraction techniques, and most recently the use of drones have had some levels of success in locating and tracking different species of cubozoa, but are limited by both anthropogenic and environmental factors.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Morrissey |first1=Scott J. |last2=Jerry |first2=Dean R. |last3=Kingsford |first3=Michael J. |date=2022-12-19 |title=Genetic Detection and a Method to Study the Ecology of Deadly Cubozoan Jellyfish |journal=Diversity |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1139 |doi=10.3390/d14121139 |issn=1424-2818 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A new form of detection, [[environmental DNA]] (eDNA), has been developed and employed to help aid in the analysis of the populations of box jellyfish which can be implemented to mitigate the effects that box jellyfish have on coastal anthropogenic activities.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Minamoto |first1=Toshifumi |last2=Fukuda |first2=Miho |last3=Katsuhara |first3=Koki R. |last4=Fujiwara |first4=Ayaka |last5=Hidaka |first5=Shunsuke |last6=Yamamoto |first6=Satoshi |last7=Takahashi |first7=Kohji |last8=Masuda |first8=Reiji |date=2017-02-28 |title=Environmental DNA reflects spatial and temporal jellyfish distribution |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=e0173073 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0173073 |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.14094/90003938 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This relatively easy and cost-effective method utilizes extra-organismal genetic material that can be found in the water column via shedding throughout the lifespan of an organism.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

This process for identifying box jellyfish using the eDNA technique involves collecting a water sample and filtering the sample through a cellulose nitrate membrane filter to extract any genetic material from the water sample.<ref name=":2" /> Once the DNA is extracted, it is analyzed for species-specific matches to see if the eDNA sequences sampled correlate with existing DNA sequences for box jellyfish.<ref name=":2" /> Given the results, the presence or absence of the box jellyfish can be indicated through the matching of genetic material.<ref name=":12" /> If a match is found, then the box jellyfish was present in the area.<ref name=":3" /> The utilization of eDNA can provide a cost-effective and efficient way to monitor populations of box jellyfish in both medusa and polyp life stages, to then use the data to help understand more about their ecology and limit the effects on coastal anthropogenic activities.<ref name=":12" />

== Ecology ==

=== Age and growth ===
It has been found that the statoliths, which are composed of [[Calcium sulfate|calcium sulfate hemihydrate]], exhibit clear sequential incremental layers, thought to be laid down on a daily basis. This has enabled researchers to estimate growth rates, ages, and age to maturity. ''[[Chironex fleckeri]]'', for example, increases its inter-pedalia distance (IPD) by {{convert|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} per day, reaching an IPD of {{convert|50|mm|0|abbr=on}} when 45 to 50 days old. The maximum age of any individual examined was 88 days by which time it had grown to an IPD of {{convert|155|mm|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Pitt">{{cite book |author1=Pitt, Kylie A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zr_EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA280 |title=Jellyfish Blooms |author2=Lucas, Cathy H. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2013 |isbn=978-94-007-7015-7 |page=280}}</ref> In the wild, the box jellyfish will live up to 3 months, but can survive up to seven or eight months in a science lab tank.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-12-14|title=Australian Box Jellyfish: 15 Fascinating Facts|url=https://travelnq.com/australian-box-jellyfish/|access-date=2021-12-06|website=Travel NQ|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Behavior ===
The box jellyfish actively hunts its prey (small fish), rather than drifting as do [[Scyphozoa|true jellyfish]]. They are strong swimmers, capable of achieving speeds of up to 1.5 to 2 metres per second or about {{convert|4|knots}}.<ref name="National Geographic Online"/> and rapidly turning up to 180° in a few bell contractions.<ref name="Avian2021"/> Some species are capable of avoiding obstacles.<ref name="Avian2021"/>

The majority of box jellyfishes feed by extending their tentacles and accelerating for a short time upwards, then turn upside-down and stop pulsating. Then the jellyfish slowly sinks, until prey finds itself entangled by tentacles. At this point the pedalia fold and bring the prey to the oral opening.<ref name="Avian2021"/>

The venom of cubozoans is distinct from that of scyphozoans, and is used to catch prey (small fish and invertebrates, including [[prawn]]s and [[bait fish]]) and for defence from predators, which include the [[Stromateidae|butterfish]], [[Ephippidae|batfish]], [[rabbitfish]], [[crab]]s ([[Portunus pelagicus|blue swimmer crab]]) and various species of [[turtle]] including the [[hawksbill sea turtle]] and [[flatback sea turtle]]. It seems that sea turtles are unaffected by the stings because they seem to relish box jellyfish.<ref name="National Geographic Online"/>

=== Reproduction ===
[[File:Chiropsalmus quadrumanus.png|thumb|Box jellyfish species ''[[Chiropsalmus quadrumanus]]'' contradicts the belief that Cubozoans are [[semelparous]].]]
Cubozoans usually have an annual life cycle. Box jellyfish reach sexual maturity when their bell diameter reaches 5 millimeters.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Cheryl |last2=Long |first2=Tristan A. F. |date=2005-06-01 |title=Courtship and reproduction in Carybdea sivickisi (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-005-1602-0 |journal=Marine Biology |language=en |volume=147 |issue=2 |pages=477–483 |doi=10.1007/s00227-005-1602-0 |issn=1432-1793|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Chirodropida]] reproduces by [[external fertilization]]. [[Carybdeida]] instead reproduces by [[internal fertilization]] and is [[ovoviviparous]]; sperm is transferred by spermatozeugmata, a type of [[spermatophore]].<ref name="Avian20212">{{cite book |last1=Avian |first1=Massimo |title=Invertebrate Zoology: A Tree of Life Approach |last2=Ramšak |first2=Andreja |publisher=CRC Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-4822-3582-1 |editor-last=Schierwater |editor-first=Bernd |chapter=Chapter 10: Phylum Cnidaria: classes Scyphozoa, Cubozoa and Staurozoa |editor-last2=DeSalle |editor-first2=Rob}}</ref> Hours after the fertilization, the female releases an embryo strand that contains its own nematocytes; both euryteles and isorhizas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rodríguez |first=J. C. |date=2015 |title=Anatomy associated with the reproductive behavior of Cubozoa |journal=Institute of Biosciences of the University of Sao Paulo |publication-place=Sao Paulo}}</ref> Cubozoas are the only class of cnidarian that contains species that perform the “wedding dance” to transfer the spermatophores from the male into the females, including the ''Carybdea sivickisi'' species.<ref name=":02" />

It is previously believed that medusa species only reproduce once in their life before dying a few weeks later, a semelparity lifestyle.<ref name=":02" /> Alternatively, in July 2023, the box jelly species ''Chiropsalmus quadrumanus'', were found to potentially have iteroparous reproduction, meaning they reproduce multiple times in their life. Oogenesis appears to happen numerous times as oocytes are discovered in four stages; pre-vitellogenic, early vitellogenic, mid vitellogenic, and late vitellogenic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=García-Rodríguez |first1=Jimena |last2=Ames |first2=Cheryl Lewis |last3=Jaimes-Becerra |first3=Adrian |last4=Tiseo |first4=Gisele Rodrigues |last5=Morandini |first5=André Carrara |last6=Cunha |first6=Amanda Ferreira |last7=Marques |first7=Antonio Carlos |date=July 2023 |title=Histological Investigation of the Female Gonads of Chiropsalmus quadrumanus (Cubozoa: Cnidaria) Suggests Iteroparous Reproduction |journal=Diversity |language=en |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=816 |doi=10.3390/d15070816 |issn=1424-2818 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Continuous research needs to be conducted to determine if box jellyfish are semelparity or iteroparous, or if it is species dependent.

==Genetics==
Box jellyfish have a mitochondrial genome that is arranged into eight linear chromosomes.<ref name=":5">{{Citation |last1=Kayal |first1=Ehsan |title=Insights into the transcriptional and translational mechanisms of linear organellar chromosomes in the box jellyfish Alatina alata (Cnidaria: Medusozoa: Cubozoa) |date=June 6, 2016 |work=RNA Biology, U.S. National Library of Medicine |doi=10.1080/15476286.2016.1194161 |pmid=27267414 |last2=Bentalge |first2=Bastian |last3=Collins |first3=Allen G|volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=799–809 |pmc=5013998 }}</ref> As of 2022, only two Cubozoan species were fully sequenced, ''[[Alatina alata]]'' and ''[[Morbakka virulenta]]''. ''A. alata'' has 66,156 genes, the largest gene count for any [[Medusozoa]]n.<ref name="Santander2022">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giac036 |title=The state of Medusozoa genomics: Current evidence and future challenges |date=2022 |last1=Santander |first1=Mylena D. |last2=Maronna |first2=Maximiliano M. |last3=Ryan |first3=Joseph F. |last4=Andrade |first4=Sónia C S. |journal=GigaScience |volume=11 |pmid=35579552 |pmc=9112765 }}</ref> The mitochondrial genome of box jellyfish is uniquely structured into multiple linear fragments.<ref name="Avian2021"/> Each one of the eight linear chromosomes have between one and four genes including two extra genes. These two extra genes (mt-polB and orf314) encode proteins.<ref name=":5"/> There are only a few studies that have been completed involving the research of mitochondrial gene expression in box jellyfish.<ref name=":5"/>

==Danger to humans==
[[File:Marinesting1.jpg|thumb|Box jellyfish warning signpost at a [[Cape Tribulation]] beach in Queensland, Australia]]
[[File:JellyfishNetAustralia.JPG|thumb|Jellyfish/stinger net [[exclosure]] at [[Ellis Beach, Queensland|Ellis Beach]], Queensland, Australia]]

Box jellyfish have been long known for their powerful sting. The lethality of the Cubozoan venom to humans is the primary reason for its research.<ref name=":5"/> Although unspecified species of box jellyfish have been called in newspapers "the world's most venomous creature"<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/7638189/Girl-survives-sting-by-worlds-deadliest-jellyfish.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/7638189/Girl-survives-sting-by-worlds-deadliest-jellyfish.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Girl survives sting by world's deadliest jellyfish|work= Daily Telegraph| access-date=11 December 2010|date=27 April 2010 | location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and the deadliest creature in the sea,<ref>{{Cite news |title='It looked like an alien, with all its tentacles wrapped around her': are jellyfish here to ruin your summer holiday? |last=Hunt |first=lle |newspaper=The Guardian |date=3 July 2021 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/03/it-looked-like-an-alien-with-tentacles-wrapped-around-her-jellyfish-here-to-ruin-your-summer-holiday}}</ref> only a few species in the class have been confirmed to be involved in human deaths; some species are not harmful to humans, possibly delivering a sting that is no more than painful.<ref name=Cbart>{{cite journal |last1= Gershwin |first1= L. A. |last2= Alderslade |first2= P |year= 2006 |url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/247836.pdf |title= ''Chiropsella bart'' n. sp., a new box jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Chirodropida) from the Northern Territory, Australia |journal= The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory |volume= 22 |pages= 15–21 |doi= 10.5962/p.287421 |s2cid= 51901195 |url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090927021922/http://nt.gov.au/nreta/publications/museums/pdf/beagle/beaglev22_p8.pdf |archive-date= 2009-09-27 }}</ref> When the venom of the box jellyfish was sequenced, it was found that more than 170 toxin proteins were identified.<ref name=":5" /> The high quantity of toxin proteins that the box jellyfish possess is the reason they are known to be so dangerous. Stings from the box jellyfish can lead to skin irritation, cardiotoxicity, and can even be fatal.<ref name=":5"/>

===Australia===
[[Hugo Flecker]], who worked on various venomous animal species and poisonous plants, was concerned at the unexplained deaths of swimmers. He identified the cause as the species of box jellyfish later named ''[[Chironex fleckeri]]''. In 1945, he described another jellyfish envenoming which he named the "Irukandji Syndrome", later identified as caused by the box jellyfish species ''Carukia barnesi''.<ref name=flecker>{{cite book | last=Pearn| first=J. H. | title = Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 14| year = 1990 | publisher = [[Melbourne University Press]] | pages=182–184|isbn = 978-0-522-84717-8 | chapter-url = http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A140195b.htm|chapter=Flecker, Hugo (1884–1957)}}</ref>

In Australia, fatalities are most often caused by the largest species of this class of jellyfish, ''Chironex fleckeri'', one of the world's most venomous creatures.<ref name=flecker/> After severe ''Chironex fleckeri'' stings, cardiac arrest can occur quickly, within just two minutes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-02-27 |title=Beach community in shock after teenager dies from box jellyfish sting |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-27/teenager-dies-box-jellyfish-sting-eimeo-beach-mackay/100865654 |access-date=2022-02-27}}</ref> ''C. fleckeri'' has caused at least 79 deaths since the first report in 1883,<ref name=NTG>{{Cite press release |publisher= [[Northern Territory Government]] Department of Health |author= Centre for Disease Control |date= November 2012 |url= http://www.health.nt.gov.au/library/scripts/objectifyMedia.aspx?file=pdf/26/02.pdf&siteID=1&str_title=Box%20Jellyfish.pdf |title= Chironex fleckeri |access-date= 2018-11-10 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160709201819/http://www.health.nt.gov.au/library/scripts/objectifyMedia.aspx?file=pdf%2F26%2F02.pdf |archive-date= 2016-07-09 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-03-04|title=Teenage boy dies from box jellyfish sting in Cape York — the first death from the animal in 15 years|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-04/box-jellyfish-fatality-queensland-western-cape-york/13214998|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref> but even in this species most encounters appear to result only in mild envenoming.<ref name=Daubert>{{cite journal| last= Daubert |first=G. P. |year= 2008 |url= http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/769538-overview |title= Cnidaria Envenomation | journal= [[eMedicine]]}}</ref> While most recent deaths in Australia have been in children, including a 14-year old who died in February 2022,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-27/teenager-dies-box-jellyfish-sting-eimeo-beach-mackay/100865654|title=Teenager dies from box jellyfish sting at Eimeo Beach near Mackay|last=Maddison|first=Melissa|date=26 February 2022|publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]}}</ref> which is linked to their smaller body mass,<ref name=NTG/> in February 2021, a 17-year-old boy died about 10 days after being stung while swimming at a beach on Queensland's western [[Cape York Peninsula|Cape York]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-04|title=Queensland teenager dies from box jellyfish sting in first fatality from the animal in 15 years|url=http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/mar/04/queensland-teenager-dies-from-box-jellyfish-sting-in-first-fatality-from-the-animal-in-15-years|access-date=2021-03-08|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> The previous fatality was in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-04|title=Queensland boy dies after being stung by box jellyfish while swimming|url=https://7news.com.au/news/qld/queensland-boy-dies-after-being-stung-by-box-jellyfish-on-western-cape-york-beach-c-2284078|access-date=2021-03-08|website=7NEWS.com.au|language=en}}</ref>

At least two deaths in Australia have been attributed to the thumbnail-sized [[Irukandji jellyfish|Irukandji box jellyfish]].<ref name="MJA2002-fenner">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fenner PJ, Hadok JC | title = Fatal envenomation by jellyfish causing Irukandji syndrome | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 177 | issue = 7 | pages = 362–3 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12358578 | url = http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/177_07_071002/fen10297_fm.html | doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04838.x | s2cid = 2157752 | url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Gershwin |first= L | year= 2007 |title= Malo kingi: A new species of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa: Carybdeida), possibly lethal to humans, from Queensland, Australia |journal= Zootaxa |volume= 1659 |pages= 55–68|doi= 10.11646/zootaxa.1659.1.2 }}</ref> People stung by these may suffer severe physical and psychological symptoms, known as [[Irukandji syndrome]].<ref name="MJA1998-Little">{{cite journal | vauthors = Little M, Mulcahy RF | title = A year's experience of Irukandji envenomation in far north Queensland | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 169 | issue = 11–12 | pages = 638–41 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9887916 | doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1998.tb123443.x | s2cid = 37058912 }}</ref> Nevertheless, most victims do survive, and out of 62 people treated for Irukandji envenomation in Australia in 1996, almost half could be discharged home with few or no symptoms after 6 hours, and only two remained hospitalized approximately a day after they were stung.<ref name="MJA1998-Little"/>

Preventative measures in Australia include nets deployed on beaches to keep jellyfish out, and jugs of vinegar placed along swimming beaches to be used for rapid first aid.<ref name=Daubert/>[[File:Medicinal Vinegar.jpg|thumb|A vinegar post in Queensland, Australia]]

===Hawaii: research and dangers===
Researchers at the [[University of Hawaii]]'s Department of Tropical Medicine found the venom causes cells to become porous enough to allow potassium leakage, causing [[hyperkalemia]], which can lead to cardiovascular collapse and death as quickly as within 2 to 5 minutes.

In [[Hawaii]], box jellyfish numbers peak approximately seven to ten days after a [[full moon]], when they come near the shore to spawn. Sometimes, the influx is so severe that lifeguards have closed infested beaches, such as [[Hanauma Bay]], until the numbers subside.<ref>{{cite web | title = Jellyfish: A Dangerous Ocean Organism of Hawaii | url = http://www.aloha.com/~lifeguards/jelyfish.html | access-date = 2010-10-06 | url-status = dead | archive-url = http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011117175037/http%3A//www.aloha.com/%7Elifeguards/jelyfish.html | archive-date = 2001-11-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Hanauma Bay closed for second day due to box jellyfish | url = http://planeteyetraveler.com/2010/02/08/hanauma-bay-closed-for-second-day-due-to-box-jellyfish/ | access-date = 2010-10-06 | archive-date = 2021-01-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210102213558/http://planeteyetraveler.com/2010/02/08/hanauma-bay-closed-for-second-day-due-to-box-jellyfish/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Malaysia, Philippines, Japan, Thailand, and Texas===
In parts of the [[Malay Archipelago]], the number of lethal cases is far higher than in Australia. In the [[Philippines]], an estimated 20–40 people die annually from [[Chirodropida|Chirodropid]] stings, probably owing to limited access to medical facilities and [[antivenom]].<ref name=FennerWilliamson>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fenner PJ, Williamson JA | title = Worldwide deaths and severe envenomation from jellyfish stings | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 165 | issue = 11–12 | pages = 658–61 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8985452 | doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb138679.x | s2cid = 45032896 }}</ref>

The recently discovered and very similar ''[[Chironex yamaguchii]]'' may be equally dangerous, as it has been implicated in several deaths in Japan.<ref name=Cyamaguchii/> It is unclear which of these species is the one usually involved in fatalities in the Malay Archipelago.<ref name=Cyamaguchii/><ref name=phd>{{cite book |author=Fenner PJ |year=1997 |title=The Global Problem of Cnidarian (Jellyfish) Stinging |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=London University |location=London |oclc=225818293}}{{page needed|date=May 2014}}</ref>

Warning signs and first aid stations have been erected in Thailand following the death of a 5-year-old French boy in August 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=Box jellyfish warning in Ko Phangan|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/most-recent/428690/phangan-warns-of-poisonous-jellyfish|newspaper=Bangkok Post|date=25 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jellyfish warning for travellers swimming in Thailand|url=http://www.tatnews.org/jellyfish-warning-for-travellers-swimming-in-thailand/|website=Tourism Authority of Thailand Newsroom|publisher=TAT|access-date=24 May 2015}}</ref> A woman died in July 2015 after being stung off [[Ko Pha Ngan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phuketgazette.net/thailand-news/Box-jellyfish-sting-kills-woman-Koh-Phangan/61634|title=Box jellyfish sting kills woman in Koh Phangan - Phuket Gazette|date=3 August 2015|website=phuketgazette.net|access-date=15 March 2018}}</ref> and another at Lamai Beach at [[Ko Samui]] on 6 October 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid%3D1444198839%26typecate%3D06%26section%3D |title=Jellyfish Kill German Tourist on Koh Samui |access-date=2015-10-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123428/http://www.khaosodenglish.com/detail.php?newsid=1444198839&typecate=06&section= |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

In 1990, a 4-year-old child died after being stung by ''[[Chiropsalmus quadrumanus]]'' at [[Galveston Island]], [[Texas]], on the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Either this species or ''[[Chiropsoides buitendijki]]'' is considered the likely perpetrator of two deaths in [[West Malaysia]].<ref name=phd/>

==Protection and treatment==
===Protective clothing===
Wearing [[pantyhose]], full body [[lycra]] suits, [[dive skins]], or [[wetsuit]]s is an effective protection against box jellyfish stings.<ref>{{cite web | last=Fitzpatrick | first=Jason | title=Use Pantyhose to Protect Yourself from Jellyfish Stings | website=Lifehacker | date=June 10, 2010 | url=https://lifehacker.com/5560147/use-pantyhose-to-protect-yourself-from-jellyfish-stings | access-date=November 8, 2018}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=May 2014}} The pantyhose were formerly thought to work because of the length of the box jellyfish's stingers (nematocysts), but it is now known to be related to the way the stinger cells work. The stinging cells on a box jellyfish's tentacles are not triggered by touch, but by chemicals found on skin, which are not present on the hose's outer surface, so the jellyfish's nematocysts do not fire.<ref name="National Geographic Online"/>

===First aid for stings===
{{See also|Jellyfish#Stings}}

Once a tentacle of the box jellyfish adheres to skin, it pumps [[Cnidocyte|nematocysts]] with venom into the skin, causing the sting and agonizing pain. Flushing with vinegar is used to deactivate undischarged nematocysts to prevent the release of additional venom. A 2014 study reported that vinegar also increased the amount of venom released from already-discharged nematocysts; however, this study has been criticized on methodological grounds.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wilcox|first=Christie|date=9 April 2014|title=Should we stop using vinegar to treat box jelly stings? Not yet—Venom experts weigh in on recent study|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/should-we-stop-using-vinegar-to-treat-box-jelly-stings-not-yetvenom-experts-weigh-in-on-recent-study|url-status=live|access-date=26 April 2015|work=Science Sushi|publisher=[[Discover (magazine)|Discover Magazine Blogs]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621103514/https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/should-we-stop-using-vinegar-to-treat-box-jelly-stings-not-yetvenom-experts-weigh-in-on-recent-study|archive-date=21 June 2020}}</ref>

Vinegar is made available on Australian beaches and in other places with venomous jellyfish.<ref name=phd/>

Removal of additional tentacles is usually done with a towel or gloved hand, to prevent secondary stinging. Tentacles can still sting if separated from the bell, or after the creature is dead. Removal of tentacles may cause unfired nematocysts to come into contact with the skin and fire, resulting in a greater degree of envenomation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Although commonly recommended in folklore and even some papers on sting treatment,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zoltan TB, Taylor KS, Achar SA | title = Health issues for surfers | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 71 | issue = 12 | pages = 2313–7 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15999868 }}</ref> there is no scientific evidence that [[urine]], [[ammonia]], [[Papain|meat tenderizer]], [[sodium bicarbonate]], [[boric acid]], [[lemon juice]], [[fresh water]], [[steroid hormone|steroid cream]], [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[ice pack|cold packs]], [[papaya]], or [[hydrogen peroxide]] will disable further stinging, and these substances may even hasten the release of venom.<ref>{{Cite journal| author = Fenner P | title =Marine envenomation: An update – A presentation on the current status of marine envenomation first aid and medical treatments | journal = Emergency Medicine Australasia | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 295–302 | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1046/j.1442-2026.2000.00151.x}}</ref> Heat packs have been proven for moderate pain relief.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G. |title=Are some jellyfish toxins heat labile? |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=30 |issue=2 |year=2000 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5843 |access-date=2013-11-15 |archive-date=2009-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123124103/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5843 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The use of pressure immobilization bandages, methylated spirits, or vodka is generally not recommended for use on jelly stings.<ref name="MJA1980-Hartwick">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartwick R, Callanan V, Williamson J | title = Disarming the box-jellyfish: nematocyst inhibition in Chironex fleckeri | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–20 | date = January 1980 | pmid = 6102347 | doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1980.tb134566.x | s2cid = 204054168 }}</ref><ref name="Toxicon2002-Seymour">{{cite journal | vauthors = Seymour J, Carrette T, Cullen P, Little M, Mulcahy RF, Pereira PL | title = The use of pressure immobilization bandages in the first aid management of cubozoan envenomings | journal = Toxicon | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 1503–5 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12368122 | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00152-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Little M | title = Is there a role for the use of pressure immobilization bandages in the treatment of jellyfish envenomation in Australia? | journal = Emergency Medicine | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–4 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12164167 | doi = 10.1046/j.1442-2026.2002.00291.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pereira PL, Carrette T, Cullen P, Mulcahy RF, Little M, Seymour J | title = Pressure immobilisation bandages in first-aid treatment of jellyfish envenomation: current recommendations reconsidered | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 173 | issue = 11–12 | pages = 650–2 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11379519 | doi =  10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb139373.x| s2cid = 27025420 | url = http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/173_11_041200/pereira/pereira.html | url-access = subscription }}</ref>

===Possible antidotes in humans===

In 2011, researchers at the University of Hawaii announced that they had developed an effective treatment against the stings of Hawaiian box jellyfish by "deconstructing" the venom contained in their tentacles.<ref>UHMedNow, [http://blog.hawaii.edu/uhmednow/2011/03/04/angel-yanagiharas-box-jellyfish-venom-research-leads-to-sting-treatment/ "Angel Yanagihara's box jellyfish venom research leads to sting treatment"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022013419/http://blog.hawaii.edu/uhmednow/2011/03/04/angel-yanagiharas-box-jellyfish-venom-research-leads-to-sting-treatment/ |date=2012-10-22 }}, March 4, 2011</ref> Its effectiveness was demonstrated in the [[PBS]] [[Nova (American TV series)|''Nova'']] episode "Venom: Nature's Killer", originally shown on North American television in February 2012.<ref>PBS Nova, [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/venom-natural-killer.html Venom: Nature's Killer] (transcript)</ref> Their research found that injected [[zinc gluconate]] prevented the disruption of red blood cells and reduced the toxic effects on the cardiac activity of research mice.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yanagihara AA, Shohet RV | title = Cubozoan venom-induced cardiovascular collapse is caused by hyperkalemia and prevented by zinc gluconate in mice | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 12 | pages = e51368 | date = 12 December 2012 | pmid = 23251508 | pmc = 3520902 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0051368  | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...751368Y | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/science-sushi/dont-pee-on-it-zinc-emerges-as-new-jellyfish-sting-treatment/
 |title=Don't Pee On It: Zinc Emerges As New Jellyfish Sting Treatment |last= Wilcox|first=Christie |date= 12 December 2012|website= scientificamerican.com|access-date=31 August 2018 }}</ref> It was later found that copper gluconate was even more effective. A cream containing copper gluconate has been produced, to be applied to inhibit the injected venom; although it is used by U.S. military divers, evidence that it is effective in humans is only anecdotal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jellyfish almost killed this scientist. Now, she wants to save others from their fatal venom |last=Law |first=Yao-Hua |website=Science - AAAS |date=8 November 2018 |url= https://www.science.org/content/article/jellyfish-almost-killed-scientist-now-she-wants-save-others-their-fatal-venom}}</ref>

In April 2019, a team of researchers at the University of Sydney announced that they had found a possible antidote to ''Chironex fleckeri'' venom that would stop pain and skin necrosis if administered within 15 minutes of being stung. The research was the result of work done with [[CRISPR]] whole genome editing in which the researchers selectively deactivated skin-cell genes until they were able to identify [[ATP2B1]], a calcium transporting [[ATPase]], as a host factor supporting [[cytotoxicity]]. The research showed the therapeutic use of existing drugs targeting [[cholesterol]] in mice, although the efficacy of the approach had not been demonstrated in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lau| first1 = Man-Tat| last2 = Manion| first2 = John| last3 = Littleboy| first3 = Jamie B.| last4 = Oyston| first4 = Lisa| last5 = Khuong| first5 = Thang M.| last6 = Wang| first6 = Qiao-Ping| last7 = Nguyen| first7 = David T.| last8 = Hesselson| first8 = Daniel| last9 = Seymour| first9 = Jamie E.| last10 = Neely| first10 = G. Gregory| title = Molecular dissection of box jellyfish venom cytotoxicity highlights an effective venom antidote| journal = Nature Communications| volume =10| issue = 1| pages = 1655| date = April 30, 2019| id = 1655| doi = 10.1038/s41467-019-09681-1| pmid = 31040274| pmc = 6491561| bibcode = 2019NatCo..10.1655L}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071112082615/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoasy.html Cubozoa classification]

{{Cnidaria}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q273179}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Box Jellyfish}}
[[Category:Cubozoa| ]]
[[Category:Medusozoa]]
[[Category:Venomous animals]]
[[Category:Cnidarians of the Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Cnidarians of the Indian Ocean]]