Editing Caesar (title)

{{short description|Imperial title in the Roman Empire}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox given name
| name            = Caesar
| image           = Retrato de Julio César (26724093101).jpg
| caption         = Sculpture depiction of [[Julius Caesar]]
| romanisation    = 
| pronunciation   = {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|s|iː|z|ər}} {{respell|SEE|zər}}<br/>{{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈkae̯sar|lang|link=yes}}
| gender          = Male
| meaning         = Short hair (disputed), nickname then title
| region          = [[Roman Republic]]
| language        = [[Latin]]
| variant forms   = {{ubl|{{lang|grc|Καιϲαρ}}|{{lang|de|[[Kaiser]]}}|{{lang|bg-Latn|[[Tsar]]}}|{{lang|ota-Latn|[[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|Qayser]]}}}}
| popularity      = yes
| footnotes       = 
}}
'''Caesar''' ({{IPA|la|ˈkae̯.sar|lang}} [[English language|English]] {{abbr|pl.|Plural}}&nbsp;'''Caesars'''; [[Latin]] {{abbr|pl.|Plural}}&nbsp;{{lang|la|Caesares}}; in Greek: {{lang|grc|Καῖσαρ}} {{lang|grc-latn|Kaîsar}}) is a [[title]] of [[emperor|imperial]] character. It derives from the ''[[cognomen]]'' of the [[Roman dictator]] [[Julius Caesar]]. The change from being a surname to a title used by the [[Roman emperors]] can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]. When used on its own, the title denoted [[heirs apparent]], who would later adopt the title ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' on accession.{{Sfn|Greenidge|1901|p=353-355}} The title remained an essential part of the style of the emperors, and became the word for "[[emperor]]" in some languages, such as German ({{lang|de|[[Kaiser]]}}) and Slavic ({{lang|pl|[[Cezar (tytuł)]]}}).

==Origins==
The first known individual to bear the ''cognomen'' of "Caesar" was [[Sextus Julius Caesar (praetor 208 BC)|Sextus Julius Caesar]], who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent [[Julii Caesares]].<ref>''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. I, p. 537.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=William |title=[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]] |date=1870 |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |volume=1 |pages=537 |chapter=1. Sex. Julius Caesar |author-link=William Smith (lexicographer) |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofgre01smituoft/page/536/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref> Sextus's great-grandson was the dictator [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]], who seized control of the [[Roman Republic]] following his [[Caesar's civil war|war]] against the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. He appointed himself as {{lang|la|[[dictator perpetuo]]}} ("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he held for only about a month before he was [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|assassinated]] in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the [[Second Triumvirate]], which was made up of three generals, including Julius' adopted son [[Augustus|Gaius Octavius]].

Following [[Roman naming conventions]], Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar.<ref>{{Citation |last=Syme |first=Ronald |title=Livy and Augustus |date=1959 |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |volume=64 |pages=175, 179 |doi=10.2307/310937 |jstor=310937 |author-link=Ronald Syme}}</ref> Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the triumvirs led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a ''[[Nomen gentilicium|nomen]]'', and had adopted the victory title ''[[imperator]]'' ("commander") as a new ''[[praenomen]]''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Syme |first=Ronald |title=Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature |date=1958 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4434568 |work=Historia |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=175–188 |jstor=4434568 |author-link=Ronald Syme}}</ref>

As a matter of course, Augustus's own adopted son and successor, [[Tiberius]], followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".

The fourth emperor, [[Claudius]] (in full, "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name without having been adopted by the previous emperor. However, he was at least a member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on [[Antonia Minor|his mother]]'s side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of [[Caligula]] (who was also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own ''nomen'', "Claudius". His stepson thus became "[[Nero]] Claudius Caesar Augustus".

== Dynastic title ==
{{Roman government}}
The first emperor to assume both the position and name without any real claim was [[Galba]], who took the throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus|Piso Licinianus]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Harriet I. Flower|title=The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4T6Oyezn_msC&dq=Galba++Piso++title+caesar++69&pg=PA225|year=2006|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-3063-5|page=225}}</ref> His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon killed by [[Otho]], who became "Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by [[Vitellius]], who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus", adopting the [[List of Roman imperial victory titles|victory title]] "Germanicus" instead. Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by [[Vespasian]], who ended the civil war and established the [[Flavian dynasty]] in AD 69, ruling as "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".{{Sfn|Hammond|1957}} 

The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the ''[[cognomen]]'' ([[Vespasian]], [[Titus]], [[Domitian]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]]); a few placed it right after it ([[Galba]], [[Otho]], [[Nerva]]). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]]. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius". The imperial formula thus became "''Imperator Caesar'' [name] ''Augustus''" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it after their ''[[Nominative determinism|cognomen]]''.{{Sfn|Hammond|1957}} Caesars occasionally were given the honorific ''[[princeps iuventutis]]'' ("First among the Youth") and, starting with the 3rd century, ''[[nobilissimus]]'' ("Most Noble").{{Sfn|Greenidge|1901|p=353-355}}

==Later developments==
===Crisis of the Third Century===
The popularity of using the title ''caesar'' to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]] attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming their sons as heirs with the title of ''caesar'', namely [[Maximinus Thrax]], [[Philip the Arab]], [[Decius]], [[Trebonianus Gallus]], [[Gallienus]] and [[Carus]]. With the exception of [[Gaius Julius Verus Maximus|Verus Maximus]] and [[Valerian II]] all of them were later either promoted to the rank of ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' within their father's lifetime (like [[Philip II (Roman emperor)|Philip II]]) or succeeded as ''augusti'' after their father's death ([[Hostilian]] and [[Numerian]]). The same title would also be used in the [[Gallic Empire]], which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor [[Tetricus I]] appointing his heir [[Tetricus II]] as ''caesar'' and his consular colleague. 

Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all ''caesares'' would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of [[Hostilian]]. The sole ''caesar'' to successfully obtain the rank of ''augustus'' and rule for some time in his own right was [[Gordian III]], and even he was heavily controlled by his court.

===Tetrarchy and Diarchy===
In 293, [[Diocletian]] established the [[Tetrarchy]], a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as ''augustus'' (in plural, ''augusti''). The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as ''nobilissimus caesar''. Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title ''caesar'' upon becoming full emperors. The ''caesares'' of this period are sometimes referred as "emperors", with the Tetrarchy being a "rule of four emperors", despite being clearly subordinate of the ''augusti'' and thus not actually sovereigns.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5wAfRUNxRQC&pg=PA194 |title=A Companion to the Roman Empire |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-7826-6 |pages=193–196}}</ref>

The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, resulting in a [[Civil wars of the Tetrarchy|lengthy civil war]]. Constantine reunited the Empire in 324, after defeating the Eastern emperor [[Licinius]]. The tetrarchic division of power was abandoned, although the divisions of the [[praetorian prefecture]]s were maintained. The title ''caesar'' continued to be used, but now merely as a ceremorial honorific for young heirs. Constantine had four ''caesares'' at the time of his death: his sons [[Constantius II]], [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], [[Constans]] and his nephew [[Dalmatius]], with his eldest son [[Crispus]] having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=McEvoy |first=Meaghan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgygc7HDBt0C&pg=PA2 |title=Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455 |date=2013 |publisher=OUP |isbn=978-0-19-966481-8 |pages=3–7}}</ref> Constantius II himself would nominate as ''caesares'' his cousins [[Constantius Gallus]] and [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 360, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to ''augustus'', starting with [[Gratian]] in 367.<ref name=":1" />

The title would be revived in 408 when [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]] gave it to his son [[Constans II (son of Constantine III)|Constans II]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kent |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uHPKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |title=Roman Imperial Coinage. Volume X |date=2018 |publisher=Spink Books |isbn=978-1-912667-37-6 |pages=50}}</ref> and then in 424 when [[Theodosius II]] gave it to his nephew [[Valentinian III]] before successfully installing him upon the western throne as ''augustus'' in 425.<ref name=":1" /> Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire; for example, it was given to [[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]] in 472 several months before [[Leo I (emperor)|his grandfather]]'s death. In the Western Empire, [[Palladius (Caesar)|Palladius]], the son of emperor [[Petronius Maximus]], became the last person bearing the title ''caesar'' in 455.

=== Byzantine Empire ===
[[File:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The Roman emperor [[Constantine the Great]], mosaic in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Constantinople]]]]
''Caesar'' or ''Kaisar'' ({{lang|grc|Καῖσαρ}}) remained a senior court title in the Eastern or [[Byzantine Empire]]. Originally, as in the classical [[Roman Empire]], it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of [[Theodosius I]], however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors, i.e. ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]''. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor:  for example, [[Alexios Mosele (Caesar)|Alexios Mosele]] who was the son-in-law of [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] (ruled 829–842), [[Bardas]] who was the uncle and chief minister of [[Michael III]] (r. 842–867), and [[Nikephoros II]] (r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father, [[Bardas Phokas the Elder|Bardas Phokas]].{{sfn|Bury|1911|p=36}}{{sfn|ODB|loc="Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363}} An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] khan [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]] by [[Justinian II]] (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705.{{sfn|ODB|loc="Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363}} The title was awarded to the brother of Empress [[Maria of Alania]], [[George II of Georgia]] in 1081.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herrin |first=Judith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3n_WmVo2U0C&pg=PA313 |title=Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15321-6 |pages=313}}</ref>

The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When [[Alexios I Komnenos]] created the title of ''[[sebastokrator]]'', ''kaisar'' became third in importance, and fourth after [[Manuel I Komnenos]] created the title of ''[[despot (court title)|despot]]'', which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was ''kaisarissa''. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Choniates |first=Nicetas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8arrZPM8moC&pg=PA412 |title=O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniatēs |date=1984 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |isbn=978-0-8143-1764-8 |pages=412}}</ref>

According to the ''[[Kletorologion|Klētorologion]]'' of 899, the Byzantine ''caesar''{{'}}s insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a ''caesar''{{'}}s creation (in this case dating to [[Constantine V]]), is included in ''[[De Ceremoniis]]'' I.43.{{sfn|Bury|1911|pp=20, 36}} The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the ''[[sebastokrator|sebastokratōr]]'' (a composite derived from ''[[sebastos]]'' and ''[[autokrator]]'', the Greek equivalents of ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' and ''[[imperator]]'') by [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118) and later of ''[[Despotes|despotēs]]'' by [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the [[Palaiologan period]], it was held by prominent nobles such as [[Alexios Strategopoulos]], but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the [[Balkans]] such as the princes of [[Great Vlachia|Vlachia]], [[Medieval Serbian state|Serbia]] and [[Thessaly]].{{sfn|ODB|loc="Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363}}

[[File:Seal of the Caesar Michael Angelos (Schlumberger, 1900).png|thumb|Seal of the ''caesar'' Michael Angelos]]
In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century ''Book of Offices'' of [[pseudo-Kodinos]], the rank continued to come after the ''sebastokratōr''. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the ''caesar'' was equal in precedence to the ''[[panhypersebastos]]'', another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew [[Michael Tarchaneiotes]] to the rank of ''[[protovestiarios]]'' and decreed that to come after the ''caesar''; while under [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] (r. 1282–1328) the ''[[megas domestikos]]'' was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor [[John VI Kantakouzenos]] (r. 1347–1354).{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|pp=134–136}} According to pseudo-Kodinos, the ''caesar''{{'}}s insignia under the Palaiologoi was a ''skiadion'' hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and [[Pendilia|pendants]] identical to those of the ''despotēs'' and the ''sebastokratōr''. He wore a red tunic (''rouchon'') similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the ''sebastokratōr'', but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed ''skaranikon'', and of the mantle, the ''tamparion'', for the ''caesar'' were not known.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|pp=147–149}}

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman claim to Roman succession}}
[[File:Gennadios II and Mehmed II.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Mehmed II]] and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople [[Gennadius Scholarius|Gennadios]].]]
"Caesar" is the title officially used by the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persians]] to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors.<ref>{{langx|pal|[[wikt:𐭪𐭩𐭮𐭫𐭩|𐭪𐭩𐭮𐭫𐭩]]}} kysly ([[Inscriptional Pahlavi]]), kysl ([[Book Pahlavi]]), transcribed as ''kēsar''</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hurbanič |first1=Martin |title=The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-16684-7 |page=234 |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Middle East]], the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in {{langx|fa|قیصر روم}} ''Qaysar-i Rum'', "Caesar of the Romans", from [[Middle Persian]] ''kēsar''). Thus, following the [[Fall of Constantinople|conquest of Constantinople]] in 1453, the victorious [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Mehmed II]] became the first of the rulers of the [[Ottoman Empire]] to assume the title (in {{langx|ota|قیصر روم}} ''Kayser-i Rûm''). 

After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title ''[[Kayser-i Rûm]]'', claiming succession to the Roman imperium.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Michalis N. Michael|author2=Matthias Kappler|author3=Eftihios Gavriel|title=Archivum Ottomanicum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjwMAQAAMAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Mouton|page=10|isbn=978-3447057530}}</ref> His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast [[Right of conquest|by conquest]], as had been done previously by the likes of [[Heraclius]] and [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Christine Isom-Verhaaren|author2=Kent F. Schull|title=Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZX2_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|date=11 April 2016|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-01948-6|pages=38–}}</ref> Contemporary scholar [[George of Trebizond]] wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".<ref name="Crowley2009">{{cite book|first=Roger |last=Crowley|title=Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftOp1cR7VK8C&pg=PT13|year=2009|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0-571-25079-0|pages=13–}}</ref> 

[[Gennadius Scholarius|Gennadius II]], a staunch antagonist of the West because of the [[Sack of Constantinople]] committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome]] with all the ceremonial elements and [[ethnarch]] (or ''milletbashi'') status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://global.britannica.com/biography/Gennadios-II-Scholarios|title= Gennadios II Scholarios |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=13 July 2020}}</ref> Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan [[Orhan]] had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from [[John Tzelepes Komnenos]].<ref name="Norwich 1995 413–416">{{Cite book| last = Norwich | first = John Julius | author-link = John Julius Norwich  | year = 1995 | title = Byzantium:The Decline and Fall | pages = 81–82 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf  | location = New York | isbn = 0-679-41650-1}}</ref> Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Western Europe, whose emperor, [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], traced his titular lineage from [[Charlemagne]] who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by [[Pope Leo III]] in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire. 

In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians ([[Holy Roman Empire]]) agreed to give up the use of the [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] title according to [[Treaty of Constantinople (1533)]] (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined [[Moscow]] as the [[Third Rome]], were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the [[Crimean Khanate]] to raid Russia on numerous occasions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar 1441–1700: Seçme Eserleri – XI|last=Halil|first=Inançik|year=2017|publisher=Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları |isbn=978-6052952511}}</ref> The Ottomans stopped claiming political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the [[Peace of Zsitvatorok|Treaty of Zsitvatorok]] in 1606, and over the [[Russian Empire]] with the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.

==List of holders==
Note: ''Caesars'' who later became ''Augusti'' and thus emperors are highlighted in bold.
{| class="wikitable"
!Coin
!Name
!Acceded
!Relinquished
!Reason
!Reigning Emperor
!Relation
!R.
|-
|
|[[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus|Piso Licinianus]]
|10 January 69
|15 January 69
|murdered
|[[Galba]]
|Adopted son
|<ref>{{cite book|author=Harriet I. Flower|title=The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4T6Oyezn_msC&pg=PA225|year=2006|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-3063-5|page=225|quote=Piso is called by his new adoptive name of Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar.}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Aureus of Titus as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Titus]]'''
|21 December 69
|24 June 79
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Vespasian]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=105|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Domitian as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Domitian]]'''
|21 December 69
|14 September 81
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Vespasian]]/[[Titus]]
|Son/Brother
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=109|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Domitia, denarius, cropped, AD 82-83, RIC II 153.jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Flavius Caesar|Flavius]]
|after AD 74
|before AD 83 (?)
|died as a child
|[[Domitian]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=112, perhaps given posthumously|pp=}}
|-
|
|'''[[Trajan]]'''
|Late October 97
|28 January 98
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Nerva]]
|Adopted son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=116|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-1843-a Ауреус Элий Вер цезарь ок. 137 г. (аверс).png|36x36px]]
|[[Lucius Aelius Caesar|Lucius Aelius]]
|June/August 136
|1 January 138
|died of illness 
|[[Hadrian]]
|Adopted son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=126|pp=}}
|-
|
|'''[[Antoninus Pius]]'''
|25 February 138
|10 July 138
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Hadrian]]
|Adopted son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=128|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Aureus of Marcus Aurelius as Caesar.png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Marcus Aurelius]]'''
|Late 139
|7 March 161
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Antoninus Pius]]
|Son-in-law
|<ref>{{Cite book|last=J. C.|first=O'Neill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdbYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22July+139%22|title=The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting|publisher=S.P.C.K.|year=1970|isbn=978-1028102341|page=18}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Commodus und Annius Verus - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5483208 (cropped).jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Marcus Annius Verus Caesar|Annius Verus]]
|12 October 166
|10 September 169
|died of a tumor
|[[Marcus Aurelius]]/[[Lucius Verus]]
|Son/Nephew
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=134|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-2943-a Ауреус. Коммод, цезарь. Ок. 175—176 гг. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Commodus]]'''
|12 October 166
|Summer 177
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Marcus Aurelius]]/[[Lucius Verus]]
|Son/Nephew
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=140|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm Pertinax Caesar (obverse).jpg|36x36px]]
|[[Pertinax the Younger|Pertinax Junior]] 
|{{Circa|}}January 193
|{{Circa|}}March 193
|title revoked
|[[Pertinax]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=146}}
|-
|[[File:Aureus-Clodius Albinus-RIC 0009b (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Clodius Albinus]]
|{{Circa|194}}
|{{Circa|196}}
|title revoked
|[[Septimius Severus]]
|–
|<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindsay |first=Hugh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zrBEy7fgzYC&pg=PA214 |title=Adoption in the Roman World |year=2009 |isbn=978-0521760508 |page=214}} The ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' states that Severus considered abdicating in favour of Albinus. [[Herodian]] and [[Cassius Dio|Dio]], however, say this was merely a trick.</ref>
|-
|[[File:Julia Domna with Caracalla and Geta as Caesars.png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Caracalla]]'''
|4 April 196
|28 January 198
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Septimius Severus]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=156|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-1853-a Ауреус Гета ок. 200-202 гг. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]'''
|28 January 198
|{{Circa}} October 209
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Septimius Severus]]
|Son/Brother
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=160|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Macrino, aureo per diadoumeniano cesare, 217-18, 01.JPG|35x35px]]
|'''[[Diadumenian]]'''
|April 217
|May 218
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Macrinus]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=163|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Severus Alexander as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Severus Alexander]]'''
|June 221
|14 March 222
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Elagabalus]]
|Adopted son and cousin
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Severus Alexander|url=https://www.livius.org/articles/person/severus-alexander/|website=[[Livius.org]]}}</ref>
|-
|
|[[Seius Sallustius|Sallustius]] (?)
|{{Circa}} 227
|{{Circa}} 227
|executed
|[[Severus Alexander]]
|Father-in-law
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235)|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/alexsev.htm|website=[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Gaius Iulius Verus Maximus denarius 236 (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Gaius Julius Verus Maximus|Verus Maximus]]
|January/May 236
|May/June 238
|murdered
|[[Maximinus Thrax]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=178|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Denarius of Gordian III as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Gordian III]]'''
|April/May 238
|August 238
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Balbinus]]/[[Pupienus]]
|–
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|pp=28–34}}
|-
|[[File:Philip II Antoninianus.jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Philip II (Roman emperor)|Philip II]]'''
|August 244
|July/August 247
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Philip the Arab]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|pp=28–34}}
|-
|[[File:Herennius Etruscus Coin Obverse with Crown.jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Herennius Etruscus]]'''
|September 250
|May 251
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Decius]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|pp=28–34}}
|-
|[[File:INC-2038-a Ауреус. Гостилиан. Ок. 251 г. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Hostilian]]'''
|September 250
|June 251
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Decius]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|pp=28–34}}
|-
|[[File:Volusian Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Volusianus]]'''
|{{Circa}} July 251
|{{Circa}} August 251
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Trebonianus Gallus]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|p=36|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Antoninianus of Valerian II - cropped.jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Valerian II]]
|{{Circa}} September 256
|Summer 258
|murdered?
|[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]/[[Gallienus]]
|Grandson/Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|p=38|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Aureus Saloninus Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Saloninus]]'''
|{{Circa}} June 258
|{{Circa}} July 260
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]/[[Gallienus]]
|Grandson/Son
|{{sfn|Peachin|1990|p=38}}
|-
|[[File:Aureus of Carinus as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Carinus]]'''
|November (?) 282
|Spring 283
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Carus]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=250|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Numerian as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Numerian]]'''
|November (?) 282
|July 283
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Carus]]/[[Carinus]]
|Son/Brother
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=252|pp=}}
|-
|
|'''[[Maximian]]'''  (?)
|21 July (?) 285{{Efn|Some authors argue that Maximian was never ''caesar'' given the lack of concrete evidence for this.}}
|1 April (?) 286{{efn|Or, alternatively, December 285.}}
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Diocletian]] (East)
|–
|<ref>{{Cite book|last=Omissi|first=Adrastos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWliDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|title=Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2018|isbn=978-0192558268|pages=76}}</ref>
|-
|[[File:Replicated medallion of Constantius I (2) (obverse).png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Constantius I]]'''
|1 March 293
|1 May 305
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Maximian]] (West)
|Son-in-law
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=269}}
|-
|[[File:Rare aureus of Galerius Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Galerius]]'''
|21 March 293
|1 May 305
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Diocletian]] (East)
|Son-in-law
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=272|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Gold Aureus of Severus II (MANTIS).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Severus II]]'''
|1 May 305
|August 306
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Maximian]] (West)
|–
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=278|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Maximinus Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Maximinus II]]'''
|1 May 305
|May (?) 310
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Galerius]] (East)
|Nephew 
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=277|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Aureus of Constantine I as Caesar.jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]]'''
|August 306{{Efn|Self-proclaimed ''augustus'', but only recognized as ''caesar'' by his fellow tetrarchs.}}
|May 310{{Efn|Constantine was recognized as ''augustus'' by Maximian in September 307, but at the same time was excluded of the imperial college by Galerius, who did not recognize the rule of Maximian and Maxentius. Constantine regained the title of ''caesar'' (which he continued to unacknowledge) in November 308, at the [[Conference of Carnuntum]].}}
|recognized as ''augustus''
|[[Galerius]]/[[Licinius]] (East)
|Brothers-in-law
|{{sfn|Barnes|1984|pp=30–33}}
|-
|[[File:Licinius gold multiple CdM Beistegui 232.jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Licinius Junior]]
|1 March 317
|19 September 324
|deposed
|[[Licinius]] (East)
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=284|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-1822-a Солид Крисп цезарь ок. 317 г. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|[[Crispus]]
|1 March 317
|{{Circa}} March 326
|executed
|[[Constantine I]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=293|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-2046-a Ауреус. Константин II. Ок. 337—340 гг. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|'''[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]'''
|1 March 317
|9 September 337
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Constantine I]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=297|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Miliarensis of Constantius II, AD 327 (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Constantius II]]'''
|8 November 324
|9 September 337
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Constantine I]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=297|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Constans as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Constans I]]'''
|25 December 333
|9 September 337
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Constantine I]]
|Son
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=298|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Delmatius Coin Abverse.jpg|35x35px]]
|[[Dalmatius]]
|18 September 335
|June/Aug. 337
|murdered
|[[Constantine I]]
|Nephew
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=294|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Impero, decenzio, medaglione in bronzo (roma), 350-353.JPG|35x35px]]
|[[Decentius]]
|July/August 350
|18 August 353
|committed suicide
|[[Magnentius]] (West)
|Brother
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=306|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:INC-1825-a Солид Констанций Галл цезарь ок. 351-354 гг. (аверс).png|35x35px]]
|[[Constantius Gallus]]
|15 March 351
|Late 354
|executed
|[[Constantius II]]
|Half-cousin
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=303|pp=}}
|-
|[[File:Emperor Julian as Caesar (obverse).jpg|35x35px]]
|'''[[Julian (emperor)|Julian II]]'''
|6 November 355
|3 November 361
|succeeded as ''augustus''
|[[Constantius II]]
|Cousin
|{{sfn|Kienast|Eck|Heil|p=309|pp=}}
|-
|
|'''[[Constans II (son of Constantine III)|Constans II]]'''
|408
|409 / 410
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine III]]/[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] (West)
|Son/-
|{{sfn|PLRE|loc=II, p. 310}}
|-
|
|'''[[Valentinian III]]'''
|23 October 424
|23 October 425
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Theodosius II]] (East)
|Half-cousin
|{{sfn|PLRE|loc=II, p. 1138}}
|-
|
|[[Palladius (Caesar)|Palladius]]
|17 March 455
|31 May 455
|executed by [[Avitus]]
|[[Petronius Maximus|Maximus]] (West)
|Son
|{{sfn|PLRE|loc= II, p. 751}}
|-
|
|[[Patricius (Caesar)|Patricius]]
|{{Circa}} 470
|{{Circa}} 471
|deposed or executed
|[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] (East)
|Son-in-law
|{{sfn|PLRE|loc=II, p. 842}}
|-
|
|'''[[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]]'''
|{{Circa}} October 472
|17 November 473
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] (East)
|Son
|<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Croke|first=Brian|date=2004|title=The Imperial Reigns of Leo II|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/BYZS.2003.559/html|journal=[[Byzantinische Zeitschrift]]|volume=96|issue=2|pages=559–575|doi=10.1515/BYZS.2003.559|s2cid=191460505 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
|-
|
|'''[[Marcus (son of Basiliscus)|Marcus]]'''
|475
|475
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Basiliscus]] (East)
|Son
|{{sfn|PLRE||loc=II, p. 720}}
|-
|
|[[Basiliscus (Caesar)|Basiliscus]] 
|476
|477
|executed
|[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] (East)
|–
|{{sfn|PLRE||loc=II, 211}}
|-
|
|'''[[Justinian I]]'''
|525
|1 April 527
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Justin I]]
|Adopted son
|<ref>[[Victor of Tunnuna]] ({{Circa}} 570), [https://www.dmgh.de/mgh_auct_ant_11/#page/196/mode/1up ''Chronica'' s.a. 525].</ref>
|-
|
|'''[[Tiberius II]]'''
|7 December 574
|26 September 578
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Justin II]]
|Adopted son
|{{sfn|PLRE|loc=III, pp. 1321–1326}}
|-
|
|[[Germanus (Caesar)|Germanus]]
|5 August 582
|by 11 August 582
|rejected the title 
|[[Tiberius II]]
|Son-in-law
|{{sfn|PLRE||loc=III, p. 529}}
|-
|
|'''[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'''
|5 August 582
|13 August 582
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Tiberius II]]
|Son-in-law
|{{sfn|PLRE||loc=III, pp. 855–860}}
|-
|
|'''[[Theodosius (son of Maurice)|Theodosius]]'''
|{{Circa}} 587
|26 March 590
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]
|Son
|{{sfn|PLRE||loc=III, p. 1293}}
|-
|
|'''[[Heraclonas]]'''
|1 January 632
|4 July 638
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Heraclius]]
|Son
|<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grierson |first=Philip |url=https://archive.org/details/docoins-2 |title=Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins, Vol. 2 |publisher=[[Dumbarton Oaks]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0884020240 |pages=216 & 390 |author-link=Philip Grierson}}</ref>
|-
|
|'''[[David Tiberius]]'''
|4 July 638
|November 641
|proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Heraclius]]
|Son
|<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gonis |first1=Nikolaos |date=2008 |title=SB VI 8986 and Heraclius' Sons |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=166 |pages=199–202 |jstor=20476531}}</ref>
|-
|
|[[Martinus (son of Heraclius)|Martinus]]
|4 July 638 (?)
|November 641
|deposed
|[[Heraclius]]
|Son
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|
|'''[[Constans II]]'''
|c. February 641
|c. July 641
|title revoked (?),<br/>later proclaimed ''augustus''
|[[Heraclius Constantine]]
|Son
|<ref>Zuckerman, Constantin (2010): "[http://www.academia.edu/2481312/ On the title and the office of the Byzantine basileus]." ''Travaux et Mémoires du Centre de recherche d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance'' '''16''': pp. 869–874.</ref>
|}

;Byzantine nobles
*[[Tervel]], [[Khan (title)|khan]] of the [[Bulgars]], named in 705 by [[Justinian II]]{{sfn|ODB|loc="Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363}}
*[[Nikephoros (Caesar)|Nikephoros]] & [[Christopher (Caesar)|Christopher]], named on 2 April 769 by their father [[Constantine V]]<ref>[[J. R. Martindale]] (2001), "[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D56/F74.htm Nikephoros 5]". ''[[Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire]]''.</ref>
*[[Alexios Mosele (Caesar)|Alexios Mosele]], likely named in 831 by his father-in-law [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]]
*[[Bardas]], named on 22 April 862 by his nephew [[Michael III]]
*[[Romanos I Lekapenos]], named on 24 September 920 by the [[Byzantine senate]]
*[[Bardas Phokas the Elder|Bardas Phokas]], named in late 963 by his son [[Nikephoros II]]
*[[Romanos III Argyros]], named on 9 November 1028 by his father-in-law [[Constantine VIII]]
*[[Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger]], named by his father-in-law [[Alexios I]]
*[[John Doukas (Caesar)|John Doukas]], named in 1074 by his brother [[Constantine X]]
*[[George II of Georgia]], named in 1081 by his brother-in-law [[Nikephoros III]]
*[[Nikephoros Melissenos]], named in 1080 by Alexios I
*[[Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I)|Isaac Komnenos]], named in 1104 by his father Alexios I
*[[John Rogerios Dalassenos]], named {{Circa}} 1130 by his father-in-law [[John II Komnenos|John II]]
*[[Renier of Montferrat]], named in 1180 by his father-in-law [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]]
*[[John Kantakouzenos (Caesar)|John Kantakouzenos]], named in 1186 by [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]]
*[[Conrad of Montferrat]], named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II
*[[Manuel Maurozomes]], named {{Circa}} 1200 by [[Alexios III Angelos|Alexios III]]
*[[Leo Gabalas]], named by [[Theodore I Laskaris]] (r. 1205–1221)
*[[Constantine Palaiologos (half-brother of Michael VIII)|Constantine Palaiologos]], named in 1259 by his brother [[Michael VIII Palaiologos|Michael VIII]]
*[[Alexios Strategopoulos]], named in 1259 by Michael VIII
*[[Roger de Flor]], leader of the [[Catalan Company]], named in 1304 by [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]]
*[[John Palaiologos (Caesar)|John Palaiologos]], named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II
*[[Hrelja (protosebastos)|Hrelja]], likely named by [[John VI Kantakouzenos]] (r. 1347–1354)

;Serbian rulers
*[[Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos]], named in 1373 by [[Despot of Epirus|despot]] [[Thomas Preljubović]]
*[[Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos]], named in 1390 by [[Despot of Epirus|despot]] [[Esau de' Buondelmonti]]
*[[Grgur Golubić]], named in 1347 by [[Stefan Uroš IV Dušan]]
*[[Vojihna]], named in 1347 by Uroš IV
*[[Preljub]], named in 1348–49 by Uroš IV
*[[Uglješa Vlatković]], named by [[Uroš V]]
*[[Nikola Radonja]], named by Uroš V
*[[Kesar Novak|Novak]], named by Uroš V

;Ottoman rulers
*[[Mehmed II]] (r. 1451–1481) assumed title ''[[kayser-i Rûm]]'' following the conquest of Constantinople in 1452
*[[Bayezid II]] (r. 1481–1512) is addressed as ''kayser'' in contemporary sources<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casale |first=Sinem Arcak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rta8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |title=Ottoman-Safavid Cultural Exchange, 1500–1639 |date=2023 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-82042-2 |pages=42}}</ref>
*[[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]] (r. 1520–1566)  called himself "Caesar of Rome" in the inscription of [[Bender, Moldova]], dating from {{ca|1538/39}}.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dimitri Korobeinikov |url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x003d0810.pdf |title=Medieval Worlds Comparative & Interdisciplinary Studies |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press |year=2021 |volume=14 |pages=180, 185 |chapter=Conquest of a Fortress as a Source of Legitimacy |quote=}}</ref> In one of his poems, he also called himself "Roman caesar".<ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kayser|title=Kayser قيصر Araplar’ın Roma ve Bizans imparatorları için kullandıkları unvan.}}</ref>
**See [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]; the title ''kayser'' continued to be used as late as the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Krishan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8iXDwAAQBAJ |title=Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691192802 |location=Princeton |page=89}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Augustus (title)]]
* [[Imperator|Imperator (title)]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Timothy D. |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) |url=https://archive.org/details/constantineeuseb0000barn |title=Constantine and Eusebius |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1984 |isbn=0674165314}}
* {{The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century}}
* {{Cite book |last=Greenidge |first=A. H. J. |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/65392/65392-h/65392-h.htm#FNanchor_1666 |title=Roman Public Life |date=1901 |publisher=[[Macmillan & Co]] |location=London |author-link=Abel Greenidge}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Mason |author-link=Mason Hammond |year=1957 |title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646 |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=25 |pages=19–64 |doi=10.2307/4238646 |jstor=4238646 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=A.H.M.|url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire|title=Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire|author2=J.R. Martindale|author3=J. Morris|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971–1992|isbn=0-521-07233-6|ref={{sfnref|PLRE}}|author-link=A. H. M. Jones|author-link2=John Robert Martindale|author-link3=John Morris (historian)|name-list-style=amp}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Kienast |first=Dietmar |title=Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie |author2=Werner Eck |author3=Matthäus Heil |publisher=[[Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft|WBG]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-534-26724-8 |place=Darmstadt |ref={{sfnref|Kienast|Eck|Heil}} |author-link2=Werner Eck |url=https://archive.org/details/romische-kaisertabelle}}
* {{cite book|last=Peachin|first=Michael|url=https://archive.org/details/ritac235|title=Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284|publisher=Gieben|year=1990|isbn=90-5063-034-0|place=Amsterdam}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=Jean|editor-last=Verpeaux|title=Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices|publisher=Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique|year=1966|language=fr}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal|last=Ferjančić|first=Božidar|author-link=Božidar Ferjančić|title=Севастократори и кесари у Српском царству|trans-title=Sebastocrators and Caesares in the Serbian Empire|year=1970|journal=Зборник Филозофског факултета |location=Belgrade|pages=255–269}}
* Krebs, C. B. (2023), "[https://histos.org/documents/2023AA02KrebsIt'sCaesarNotMrKing.pdf It's Caesar [Kaiser/Tsar<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Not Mr. King.' (Mis)understanding a Caesarian Pun (Suet. ''Iul.'' 79.2) and Its Ironies]," in ''Histos'' 17: 43-51.

{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Augustus}}
{{Byzantine offices after pseudo-Kodinos}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]
[[Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership]]
[[Category:Byzantine court titles]]
[[Category:Imperial titles]]