Editing Canadian English

{{Short description|Set of varieties of the English language native to Canada}}
{{Redirect|CanE||Cane (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Canadian English
| region           = [[Canada]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|21.400000|2}}&nbsp;million in Canada
| date             = 2021 census
| ref              = <ref name=ethn>{{e27|eng|English (Canada)}}</ref>
| speakers2        = about 15 million, c. 7&nbsp;million of which with French as the L1
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[North Sea Germanic]]
| fam5             = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam6             = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| fam7             = [[English language|English]]
| fam8             = [[North American English]]
| ancestor         = [[Old English]]
| ancestor2        = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor3        = [[Early Modern English]]
| dia1 = [[Indigenous English in Canada|Indigenous]]
| dia2 = [[Atlantic Canadian English|Atlantic]] (Including: [[Newfoundland English|Newfoundlander]] and [[Lunenburg English|Lunenburger]])
| dia3 = [[Toronto slang|Toronto]]
| dia4 = [[Ottawa Valley English|Ottawa Valley]]
| dia5 = [[Quebec English]]
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[English alphabet]])<br />[[Unified English Braille]]<ref name=braille>{{cite web | url = http://www.brailleliteracycanada.ca/view.asp?ccid=333 | title = History of Braille (UEB) | year = 2016 | website = Braille Literacy Canada | access-date = 2 January 2017 | archive-date = 3 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170103015016/http://www.brailleliteracycanada.ca/view.asp?ccid=333 | url-status = live }}</ref>
| isoexception     = dialect
| ietf             = {{wikidata|property|references|P305}}
| glotto           = cana1268
| notice           = IPA
}}
{{image frame
|content={{Map of Canadian English}}
|max-width=630
|caption=
}}
{{English language}}

'''Canadian English''' ('''CanE''', '''CE''', '''en-CA''')<ref><code>en-CA</code> is the [[language code]] for ''Canadian English'', as defined by [[ISO standard]]s (see [[ISO 639-1]] and [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]]) and [[Internet standard]]s (see [[IETF language tag]]).</ref> encompasses the [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[English language|English]] used in [[Canada]]. According to the [[2016 Canadian Census|2016 census]], English was the [[first language]] of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke [[Canadian French|French]] (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%).<ref name="Dillinger" /> In the province of [[Quebec]], only 7.5% of the population speak English as their mother tongue, while most of Quebec's residents are native speakers of [[Quebec French]].<ref name="gmcdi_a">{{cite web
 |title        = Population by mother tongue and age groups, percentage distribution (2006), for Canada, provinces and territories&nbsp;– 20% sample data
 |publisher    = Statistics Canada
 |year         = 2007
 |url          = http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/language/Table401.cfm
 |access-date  = 4 December 2007
 |archive-date = 10 March 2009
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090310155903/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/language/Table401.cfm
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref>

The most widespread variety of Canadian English is [[Standard Canadian English]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chambers |first=J. K. |title=English in Canada |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |editor-last=Edwards |editor-first=John |volume=Language in Canada |page=252 |language=En}}</ref> spoken in all the western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from [[Central Canada]] to [[British Columbia]]), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or upper-class speakers from natively [[English-speaking]] families.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dollinger|first= Stefan |year=2012|chapter=Varieties of English: Canadian English in real-time perspective|title=English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook|editor-first1= Alexander |editor-last1=Bergs |editor-first2= Laurel J. |editor-last2=Brinton |publisher=[[De Gruyter]]|pages= 1859&ndash;1860}}</ref> Standard Canadian English is distinct from [[Atlantic Canadian English]] (its most notable subset being [[Newfoundland English]]), and from [[Quebec English]]. Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=Colin |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/southwestern-ontario-accent-study-1.3733712 |title=Southwestern Ontario accent to be documented in study |date=24 August 2016 |publisher=CBC |access-date=11 April 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406225647/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/southwestern-ontario-accent-study-1.3733712 |url-status=live }}</ref>

While Canadian English tends to be close to [[American English]] in most regards,<ref>{{cite book|last=Boberg|first= Charles |year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZV7AAAAQBAJ|chapter= Standard Canadian English|editor-first=Raymond|editor-last= Hickey|title=Standards of English: Codified Varieties Around the World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page= 159}}</ref><ref name="Labov">Labov, p. 222.</ref> classifiable together as [[North American English]], Canadian English also possesses elements from [[British English]] as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics.<ref name="Dollinger 2008">Dollinger, Stefan (2008). "New-Dialect Formation in Canada". Benjamins, {{ISBN|9789027231086}}. p. 25.</ref> The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been the ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Boberg|2010|p=49}}</ref> Standard Canadian and [[General American English]] share identical or near-identical [[phoneme|phonemic]] inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ.<ref>{{Cite web
| url          = http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/canadian-english
| title        = Canadian English
| last         = Dollinger
| first        = Stefan
| year         = 2011
| website      = Oxford Dictionaries
| publisher    = Oxford University Press
| access-date  = 16 May 2016
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160526041456/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/canadian-english
| archive-date = 26 May 2016
| url-status     = dead
}}</ref>

Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and [[Western American English|Western United States English]] have been undergoing a [[Low Back Merger Shift|similar vowel shift]] since the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harbeck|first= James |date=2014|url=http://theweek.com/articles/453616/why-difficult-tell-canadian-accent-from-californian |title=Why It's Difficult to Tell a Canadian Accent from a Californian One|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202052853/http://theweek.com/articles/453616/why-difficult-tell-canadian-accent-from-californian |archivedate=2 December 2015|work=The Week}}</ref>

== History ==
Canadian English as an academic field of inquiry solidified around the time of World War II. While early linguistic approaches date back to the second half of the 19th century, the first textbook to consider Canadian English in one form or another was not published until 1940.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108596862 |title=Creating Canadian English |date=2019-06-24 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-59686-2 |page=30 |doi=10.1017/9781108596862 |quote=So when to start this book's story? In 1940. In that year, Queen's University Professor of English Henry Alexander, an Oxford-educated man whom the next chapter we will call "the grandfather of Canadian English", published a textbook on the history of English. ... Unless you test it from cover to cover, you won't be able to appreciate that this book, read by many a student (a new edition war published in 1962) seems to be the first book that took Canadian English seriously, sprinkling interesting tidbits of information on it into the chapters on British and American English, here and there.}}</ref> [[Walter Spencer Avis|Walter S. Avis]] was its most forceful spokesperson after WWII until the 1970s. His team of lexicographers managed to date the term "Canadian English" to a speech by a Scottish Presbyterian minister, the Reverend Archibald Constable Geikie, in an address to the [[Canadian Institute]] in 1857 (see [http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ DCHP-1 Online], s.v. "Canadian English", Avis ''et al.,'' 1967).<ref>{{Cite book
| title     = A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles
| last      = Avis
| first     = Walter S.
| publisher = Gage Ltd.
| year      = 1967
| oclc      = 299968792
| at     = s.v. "Canadian English"
}}</ref> Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain.<ref name="dbmtyy">Chambers, p. xi.</ref>

One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century. French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life. For example, words like [[poutine]], and [[toque]] are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.{{sfn|Boberg|2010|pp=55–105}}

An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries.{{sfn|Boberg|2010|pp=55–105}} Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift. However, Canadian English also developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double. In the early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] who were not anglophones.<ref>Gagnon, Erica, Collections Researcher "[https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914]". ''Pier 21 Museum''.</ref> At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had [[British Canadians|British]], [[Irish Canadians|Irish]], or [[United Empire Loyalist|Loyalist]] ancestry, or some mixture of these.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Administration of Dominion Lands, 1870&ndash;1930|last=Lambrecht|first=Kirk N|year=1991}}</ref> Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent [[anglicization]] and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media.

American English also had a significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chambers |first=J. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eylHPwAACAAJ |title=Sociolinguistic Theory |date=2008 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-4051-5246-4 |language=en}}</ref> American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian English.

The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English.  Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values.  Canadian institutions, such as the CBC and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English.

In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages.{{sfn|Boberg|2010}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}} Indigenous words such as moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon.

Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries.<ref name="Dillinger">{{Cite book |author=Dollinger |first=Stefan |title=Handbook of World Englishes |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2020 |edition=2nd |chapter=English in Canada |access-date=19 Apr 2023 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/14933782 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814190635/https://www.academia.edu/14933782 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] fleeing the [[American Revolution]], chiefly from the [[Mid-Atlantic States]]—as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from [[northern American English]].<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=ia5tHVtQPn8C&pg=PA268 Canadian English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610162410/https://books.google.com/books?id=ia5tHVtQPn8C&pg=PA268 |date=2016-06-10 }}." Brinton, Laurel J., and Fee, Marjery, ed. (2005). Ch. 12. in ''The Cambridge history of the English language. Volume VI: English in North America.'', Algeo, John, ed., pp. 422–440. Cambridge University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-521-26479-2}}. On p. 422: "It is now generally agreed that Canadian English originated as a variant of northern American English (the speech of New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania)."</ref><ref>"Canadian English." McArthur, T., ed. (2005). ''Concise Oxford companion to the English language'', pp. 96–102. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280637-8}}. On p. 97: "Because Canadian English and American English are so alike, some scholars have argued that in linguistic terms Canadian English is no more or less than a variety of (''Northern'') ''American English''.</ref> Canadian English has been developing features of its own since the early 19th century.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan. (2008)."New-Dialect Formation in Canada." Benjamins, 978 90 272 31068 6. p. 279."</ref><ref name="Labov, Ash 2006">"Labov, Ash, Boberg. 2006. ''The Atlas of North American English''. Mouton, ch. 15.</ref> The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the [[War of 1812]] by the [[governors of Canada]], who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a [[Multiculturalism|multicultural]] country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of [[globalization]].<ref>Chambers, p. xi–xii.</ref>

The languages of [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]] started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place,<ref>{{cite web
| url        = http://www.askoxford.com/globalenglish/worldenglish/factors/?view=uk
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080514160430/http://www.askoxford.com/globalenglish/worldenglish/factors/?view=uk
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 14 May 2008
| title      = Factors which shaped the varieties of English
| website  = AskOxford.com
| access-date = 26 February 2011
}}</ref> and the [[Quebec French|French]] of [[Lower Canada]] provided vocabulary, with words such as ''tuque'' and ''portage'',<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=17 August 2012 |title=Canadian English |work=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://public.oed.com/aspects-of-english/english-in-use/canadian-english |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821083957/http://public.oed.com/aspects-of-english/english-in-use/canadian-english/ |archive-date=21 August 2017 |access-date=20 August 2017 }}</ref> to the English of [[Upper Canada]].<ref name="dbmtyy" />

Overall, the history of Canadian English is a reflection of the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2008-09-26 |title=Social Lives in Language – Sociolinguistics and multilingual speech communities: Celebrating the work of Gillian Sankoff |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/books/9789027290755 |access-date=2023-04-11 |series=IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society |volume=24 |doi=10.1075/impact.24 |isbn=978-90-272-1863-6 |language=en}}</ref> While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's distinct identity.

== Historical linguistics ==

Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare.  Yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work, is Dollinger.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan. 2012. [https://www.academia.edu/4001676/Varieties_of_English_Canadian_English_in_real-time_perspective Canadian English in real-time perspective] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616071755/http://www.academia.edu/4001676/Varieties_of_English_Canadian_English_in_real-time_perspective |date=16 June 2017 }}. In: English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. Vol. II. (HSK 34.2), ed. by Alexander Bergs & Laurel Brinton, 1858–1880. Mouton de Gruyter. UPDATED version, for 2017, is found here: https://www.academia.edu/35010966/Varieties_of_English_Canadian_English_in_real-time_perspective_2017_updated_version_of_2012_paper_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404213645/https://www.academia.edu/35010966/Varieties_of_English_Canadian_English_in_real-time_perspective_2017_updated_version_of_2012_paper_ |date=4 April 2023 }}</ref> Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=27712937 | last1=Bloomfield | first1=Morton W. | title=Canadian English and Its Relation to Eighteenth Century American Speech | journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology | date=1948 | volume=47 | issue=1 | pages=59–67 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=27706998 | last1=Scargill | first1=M. H. | title=Sources of Canadian English | journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology | date=1957 | volume=56 | issue=4 | pages=610–614 }}</ref> An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis ''et al.''{{'s}} 1967 ''[[Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles]]'' offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1 is now available in open access.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan (ed.-in-chief), Laurel J. Brinton and Margery Fee (eds). 2013. [http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213014/http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ |date=23 September 2015 }}. Based on Walter S. Avis et al. (1967). University of British Columbia.</ref> Most notably,{{cn|date=March 2025}} Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/4006034/New-Dialect_Formation_in_Canada_Evidence_from_the_English_Modal_Auxiliaries Dollinger (2008)]</ref>

===Canadian dainty===
{{anchor|Canadian dainty}} Historically, Canadian English included a class-based [[sociolect]] known as ''Canadian dainty''.<ref name=dainty>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/canadian-dainty-accent-canada-day-1.4167610 "Some Canadians used to speak with a quasi-British accent called Canadian Dainty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705044421/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/canadian-dainty-accent-canada-day-1.4167610 |date=5 July 2017 }}. [[CBC News]], 1 July 2017.</ref> Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of [[British English]] pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the [[Good American Speech|Mid-Atlantic accent]] known in the United States.<ref name=dainty /> This accent faded in prominence following [[World War II]], when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and is now rare.<ref name=dainty />  The governor general [[Vincent Massey]], the writer and broadcaster [[Peter Stursberg]], the actor [[Lorne Greene]], and the actor [[Christopher Plummer]]<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Edelstein|first=David|date=May 27, 2011|title=Christopher Plummer on His Pivotal Film Roles|url=https://nymag.com/movies/features/christopher-plummer-2011-6/|url-access=limited|magazine=[[New York (magazine)|New York]]|access-date=January 5, 2025}}</ref> are examples of men who were raised in Canada but spoke with a British-influenced accent.<ref name=dainty />

== Spelling ==
{{Anchor|Orthography}}
Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies. For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable. Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables, somewhat more so, perhaps, than in the two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Canadian spelling. An empirical and historical survey of selected words|last=Ireland|first=Robert|year=1979|publisher= York University|pages=140–145}}</ref>
* Words such as ''reali'''z'''e'' and ''organi'''z'''ation'' are usually given their [[Oxford spelling]]s with a ''z''.
* Words such as ''an'''e'''sthesia'' and ''gyn'''e'''cology'' are usually or more commonly spelled as in American English rather than ''an'''ae'''sthesia'' and ''gyn'''ae'''cology'' as in British English.
* French-derived words that in American English end with ''-or'', such as ''col'''or''''' or ''hon'''or''''', retain British spellings (''col'''our''''' and ''hon'''our''''').
* French-derived words that in American English end with ''-er'', such as ''fib'''er''''' or ''cent'''er''''', retain British spellings (''fib'''re''''' and ''cent'''re'''''). This rule is much more relaxed than the ''-our'' rule, with ''kilomet'''er''''' (''kilomet'''re''''') being quite acceptable while ''meag'''er''''' (''meag'''re''''') and ''somb'''er''''' (''somb'''re''''') may not even be noticed.
* While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling ''defen'''se''''' and ''offen'''se''''' (noun), most Canadians use the British spellings ''defen'''ce''''' and ''offen'''ce'''''. (But ''defen'''sive''''' and ''offen'''sive''''' are universal across all forms of English.)
* Some nouns, as in British English, take ''-ce'' while corresponding verbs take ''-se''&nbsp;– for example, ''practi'''ce''''' and ''licen'''ce''''' are nouns while ''practi'''se''''' and ''licen'''se''''' are the respective corresponding verbs. (But ''advi'''ce''''' and ''advi'''se''''', which have distinct pronunciations, are universal.)
* Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling the consonant ''-l-'' when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British) ''cance'''ll'''ed'', ''counse'''ll'''or'', and ''trave'''ll'''ing'' (more often than not in Canadian while always doubled in British) to American ''cance'''l'''ed'', ''counse'''l'''or'', and ''trave'''l'''ing'' (''fue'''l'''ed'', ''fue'''ll'''ed'', ''due'''l'''ing'' and ''due'''ll'''ing'' are all common). In American English, this consonant is only doubled when stressed; thus, for instance, ''contro'''ll'''able'' and ''enthra'''ll'''ing'' are universal. (But both Canadian and British English use ''ballo'''t'''ed'' and ''profi'''t'''ing''.<ref name="CanadianOxford">{{cite book
| title     = The Canadian Oxford Dictionary
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| year      = 2001
| author1   = Oxford Press
| last2   = Barber
| first2   = Katherine
| isbn      = 978-0-19-541731-9
}}</ref>)
* In other cases, Canadian and American usage differs from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like ''curb'' and ''tire'' (of a wheel), which in British English are spelled ''kerb'' and ''tyre''. (But ''tire'' in the sense of "make or become weary" is universal.)  Some other differences like Canadian and American ''aluminum'' versus ''aluminium'' elsewhere correspond to different pronunciations.<ref>The Grammarist, "Aluminium vs. aluminum". Retrieved 2 June 2018. available at: http://grammarist.com/spelling/aluminium-aluminum/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620073205/http://grammarist.com/spelling/aluminium-aluminum/ |date=20 June 2018|website=[[Grammarist]] }}</ref> {{crossreference|selfref=no|(See below for an explanation of the Canadian spelling of ''tire''.)}}

Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, Canada's automobile industry has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of ''tire'' (hence, "[[Canadian Tire]]") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, ''truck'' instead of ''lorry'', ''gasoline'' instead of ''petrol'', ''trunk'' instead of ''boot'').<ref name="CanadianOxford" />

Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canada's first [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]], [[John A. Macdonald]], once advised the [[Governor General of Canada]] to issue an [[order-in-council]] directing that government papers be written in the British style.<ref>Richard Gwyn, ''John A.: The Man Who Made Us'', Random House Canada, 2007, pp. 3–4.</ref>

A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for [[Hansard]] transcripts of the [[Parliament of Canada]] {{crossreference|selfref=no|(see ''The Canadian Style'' in [[#Further reading|Further reading]] below)}}. Many Canadian editors, though, use the ''[[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]]'', often along with the chapter on spelling in ''Editing Canadian English'', and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references. {{crossreference|selfref=no|(See [[#Further reading|Further reading]] below.)}}

Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings,<ref>{{cite conference
 |author       = Dollinger, Stefan
 |title        = New data for an English usage puzzle: the long history of spelling variation in Canadian English and its linguistic implications
 |conference= 16th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Pécs, Hungary
 |date         = 26 August 2010
 |url          = http://www.icehl-16.pte.hu/files/tiny_mce/File/Abstracts%20of%20SECTION%20PAPERS.pdf
 |access-date  = 20 August 2017
 |archive-date = 10 May 2017
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20170510100742/http://www.icehl-16.pte.hu/files/tiny_mce/File/Abstracts%20of%20SECTION%20PAPERS.pdf
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref> for example, ''color'' as opposed to the British-based ''colour''. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010)<ref>{{Cite journal
 |last         = Dollinger
 |first        = Stefan
 |year         = 2010
 |title        = New data for an English usage puzzle: the long history of spelling variation in Canadian English and its linguistic implications
 |url          = https://www.academia.edu/23083415
 |journal      = 19th International Conference on the History of the English Language, Pécs, Hungary, Paper Presented on 26 Aug. 2010
 |access-date  = 17 March 2016
 |archive-date = 4 April 2023
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20230404213647/https://www.academia.edu/23083415
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> and Grue (2013).<ref>{{Cite journal
| last         = Grue
| first        = Dustin
| year         = 2013
| title        = Testing Canada's 'honour': Does orthography index ideology?
| url          = https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/8649
| journal      = Strathy Student Working Papers on Canadian English
| access-date  = 17 March 2016
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160326043752/https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/8649
| archive-date = 26 March 2016
| url-status     = live
}}</ref> The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of [[the Canadian Press]] perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to [[World War II]].<ref name=OC31Mar1990>{{cite news
| title = Practical concerns spelled the end for -our
| work  = [[Ottawa Citizen]]
| date  = 31 March 1990
| page  = B3
| first = William
| last  = MacPherson
}}</ref> The practice of dropping the letter ''u'' in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which [[movable type]] was set manually.<ref name=OC31Mar1990 /> Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, so it was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided.<ref name=TS08Mar97>{{cite news
| title = Let's hear what the readers say
| first = Don
| last  = Sellar
| work  = [[Toronto Star]]
| date  = 8 March 1997
| page  = C2
}}</ref>

In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as ''-our'' endings, notably with ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'' changing its spelling policy in October 1990.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Contemplating a U-turn
| first = John
| last  = Allemang
| date  = 1 September 1990
| work  = [[The Globe and Mail]]
| page  = D6
}}</ref> Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the [[Canwest News Service|Southam]] newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Herald's move to Canadian spellings a labour of love
| date  = 2 September 1998
| work  = [[Calgary Herald]]
| page  = A2
}}</ref> The ''[[Toronto Star]]'' adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997.<ref name=TS08Mar97 /><ref name=TS13Sep97>{{cite news
| title = How your Star is changing
| first = John
| last  = Honderich
| date  = 13 September 1997
| page  = A2
| work  = [[Toronto Star]]
}}</ref> The ''Star'' had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the ''[[Gage Canadian Dictionary]]'' in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the ''Gage Dictionary'' finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the ''Star'' followed suit. Some publishers, e.g. ''[[Maclean's]]'', continue to prefer American spellings.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

== Standardization, codification and dictionaries ==
The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English was published by [[Gage Educational Publishing Company|Gage]] Ltd. under the chief-editorships of [[Charles J. Lovell (lexicographer)|Charles J. Lovell]] and Walter S. Avis as of 1960 and the "[[Big Six (Canadian English)|Big Six]]"<ref name=":3" /> editors plus [[Faith Avis]]. The ''Beginner's Dictionary'' (1962), the ''Intermediate Dictionary'' (1964) and, finally, the ''Senior Dictionary'' (1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography. In November 1967 [[A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles]] (DCHP) was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series. The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since: the ''Senior Dictionary,'' edited by [[Robert John Gregg]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/35184221|title=Creating Canadian English: the Professor, the Mountaineer, and a National Variety of English|last=Dollinger|first=Stefan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019|page=26|access-date=11 April 2023|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405050418/https://www.academia.edu/35184221|url-status=live}}</ref> was renamed ''Gage Canadian Dictionary''. Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by [[HarperCollins]]. On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online [[Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2]] (DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates the c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English.

In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled ''The Oxford Canadian Dictionary''. A second edition, retitled ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether ''colour'' or ''color'' was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available.

Since 2022,{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} the Editors' Association of Canada has been leading the writing of a new ''Canadian English Dictionary'' within a national dictionary Consortium. The Consortium comprises the Editors' Association of Canada, the [[University of British Columbia|UBC]] Canadian English Lab, and [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]]'s Strategy Language Unit.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the CED |url=https://canadianenglishdictionary.ca/about.html |publisher=Canadian English Dictionary |access-date=1 November 2024}}</ref>

== Phonology and phonetics ==
It is quite common for Canadian English speakers to have the [[cot-caught merger]], the [[father-bother merger]], the [[Low-Back-Merger Shift]] (with the vowel in words such as "trap" moving backwards), [[Canadian raising]] (words such as "like" and "about" pronounced with a higher first vowel in the diphthong) and no [[trap-bath split]].<ref>Charles Boberg. 2021. Accent in North American Film and Television. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Canadian raising is when the onsets of diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ/}} and {{IPA|/aʊ/}} get raised to {{IPAblink|ə}} or {{IPAblink|ʌ}} before voiceless segments.<ref name="Hickey">{{Cite book
| last  = Hickey
| first = Raymond
| date  = 9 December 2013
| title = A Dictionary of Varieties of English
| doi   = 10.1002/9781118602607
| isbn = 9781118602607
}}</ref>  There are areas in the eastern U.S. where some words are pronounced with Canadian raising.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006}}</ref>

Some young Canadians may show Goose-[[Fronting (sound change)|fronting]].  U.S. southern dialects have long had goose-fronting, but this goose-fronting among young Canadians and Californians is more recent.  Some young Californians also show signs of the [[Low-Back-Merger Shift]].  The cot-caught merger is perhaps not general in the U.S., but younger speakers seem more likely to have it.<ref name="Boberg 2021">Boberg 2021</ref>

The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists words such as "no" and "way" as having a long monophthong vowel sound, whereas American dictionaries usually have these words ending in an upglide {{Original research span|text=(although there may be areas of the U.S. near the border where monophthongization is present, such as Fargo or Minnesota)|date=December 2024}}.

[[File:Toronto English vowel chart.svg|thumb|250px|Pure vowels of a [[Standard Canadian English]] speaker in Toronto on a vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Tse|2018|p=141}}. It shows the [[Canadian Shift]] from {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɪ}}, {{IPAplink|ɛ}}, {{IPAplink|æ}}]}} towards {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɘ}}, {{IPAplink|ɛ|ɛ̠}}, {{IPAplink|ä}}]}} as well as the [[cot-caught merger]] towards a rounded open back vowel {{IPAblink|ɒ}}.]]

In terms of the major sound systems ([[Phonology|phonologies]]) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English. Some dialectologists group Canadian and American English together under a common [[North American English]] sound system.<ref name="Boberg 2021"/> The mainstream Canadian accent ("Standard Canadian") is often compared to the [[General American]] accent, a middle ground lacking in noticeable regional features.

Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) shows the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to [[William Labov]], a dialect region in formation where a homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed.<ref>Labov, p. 214</ref> Labov's research focused on urban areas, and did not survey the country, but they found similarities among the English spoken in Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto.<ref name="Labov" /> This dialect forms a dialect continuum with [[Western American English|Western US English]], sharply differentiated from [[Inland North]]ern US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region where the [[Inland Northern American English#Northern Cities Vowel Shift|Northern Cities Shift]] is sending front vowels in the opposite direction to the [[Low-Back-Merger Shift]] heard in Canada and California.

=== Standard ===
{{Main|Standard Canadian English}}
[[Standard Canadian English]] is socially defined. Standard Canadian English is spoken by those who live in urban Canada, in a middle-class job (or one of their parents holds such employment), who are second generation or later (born and raised in Canada) and speak English as (one of their) dominant language(s) (Dollinger 2019a, adapted from Chambers 1998). It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e. born in Canada) and who live in urban settings.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan (2012). "Varieties of English: Canadian English in real-time perspective." In ''English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook'' (HSK 34.2), Alexander Bergs & Laurel J. Brinton (eds), 1858–1880. [[De Gruyter]]. pp. 1859–1860.</ref> Applying this definition, c. 36% of the Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census.<ref>{{Cite web
| url          = https://www.academia.edu/4049232
| title        = Academic and public attitudes to the notion of 'standard' Canadian English
| last         = Dollinger
| first        = Stefan
| year         = 2011
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171021034819/http://www.academia.edu/4049232/Academic_and_public_attitudes_to_the_notion_of_standard_Canadian_English
| archive-date = 21 October 2017
| url-status     = live
| access-date  = 26 January 2018
}}</ref>

=== Regional variation ===
The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such a person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The ''Atlas of North American English'', while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33<ref>{{Cite book
| title     = The Atlas of North American English
| last      = Labov, Ash and Boberg
| publisher = de Gruyter
| year      = 2005
| pages     = Chapter 20
}}</ref> Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary<ref>{{Cite journal
| last    = Boberg
| first   = Charles
| year    = 2005
| title   = The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: New variables and methods in the study of North American English
| journal = American Speech
| volume  = 80
| issue   = 1
| pages   = 22–60
| doi   = 10.1215/00031283-80-1-22
}}</ref> and phonetics<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal
| last    = Boberg
| first   = Charles
| s2cid = 146478485
| year    = 2008
| title   = Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English
| journal = Journal of English Linguistics
| volume  = 36
| issue   = 2
| pages   = 129–54
| doi   = 10.1177/0075424208316648
}}</ref> overlap to a great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke<ref name="Archived copy"/> distinguish between:
* West (B.C., Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba; with B.C. a sub-zone on the lexical level)
* Ontario (with Northwestern Ontario a transition zone with the West)
* Quebec (concerning the c. 500 000 Anglophone speakers in the province, not the Francophone speakers of English)
* Maritimes (PEI, NS, NB, with PEI a subgroup on the lexical level)
* Newfoundland

==== Indigenous ====
{{Main|Aboriginal English in Canada}}
{{Further|Canadian Aboriginal syllabics|Inuit languages}}
The words ''Aboriginal'' and ''Indigenous'' are capitalized when used in a Canadian context.<ref name="v778">{{cite web | title=The Canadian Style | website=TERMIUM Plus® | date=October 8, 2009 | url=https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chap_catlog&info0=14 | access-date=July 16, 2024}}</ref><ref name="j729">{{cite web | title=4.11 Races, languages and peoples, 4.12 | website=TERMIUM Plus® | date=October 8, 2009 | url=https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=indx_catlog&info0=4.11&info1=4.12 | access-date=July 16, 2024}}</ref><ref name="s316">{{cite web | title=Indigenous Peoples | website=University of Guelph | date=Nov 14, 2019 | url=https://news.uoguelph.ca/guides/style-guide/inclusive-language/indigenous-peoples/ | access-date=Jul 24, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=14.12 Elimination of Racial and Ethnic Stereotyping, Identification of Groups|url=https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-srch?lang=eng&srchtxt=indigenous&cur=2&nmbr=2&lettr=14&info0=14.12#zz14|website=Translation Bureau|publisher=Public Works and Government Services Canada|access-date=2 July 2020|language=en|year=2017}}</ref><ref name="McKay">{{cite web|last1=McKay |first1=Celeste |title=Briefing Note on Terminology |url=http://umanitoba.ca/student/indigenous/terminology.html |publisher=University of Manitoba |access-date=2 July 2020 |date=April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025224808/http://umanitoba.ca/student/indigenous/terminology.html |archive-date=October 25, 2016 }}</ref><ref name=":088">{{Cite journal|last=Todorova|first=Miglena|date=2016|title=Co-Created Learning: Decolonizing Journalism Education in Canada|journal=Canadian Journal of Communication|volume=41|issue=4|pages=673–92|doi=10.22230/cjc.2016v41n4a2970|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and [[Inuit]] from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. Non-indigenous Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced a dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English.

Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization. British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to the small number of speakers. To some extent, the dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language. The dialects are also a result of the late stages of [[pidgin|depidginization]] and [[decreolization]], which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity. These dialects are observed to have developed a [[lingua franca]] due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually, the various dialects began to converge with standard English.

Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation. Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English. Plains Cree has no voicing contrast. The stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, and {{IPA|/k/}} are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced. Plains Cree also does not have the liquids or fricatives found in the standard form. [[Dene Suline]], on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting in the use of features not seen in the standard form. The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/02699200802221620 | title=First Nations English dialects in Canada: Implications for speech-language pathology | date=2008 | last1=Ball | first1=Jessica | last2=Bernhardt | first2=B. May | journal=Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics | volume=22 | issue=8 | pages=570–588 | pmid=18645739 }}</ref>

==== Maritimes ====
{{Main|Canadian Maritime English}}
[[File:Atlantic Canada IPA chart.PNG|350px|right|thumb|Based on Labov ''et al.''; [[Formant#Phonetics|averaged F1/F2 means]] for speakers from N.S., N.B., N.L.]]
Many in the Maritime provinces&nbsp;– [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Prince Edward Island]]&nbsp;– have an accent that sounds more like [[Scottish English]] and, in some places, [[Irish English]] than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping.

The phonology of [[Maritimer English]] has some unique features:
* ''Cot–caught'' merger in effect, but toward a central vowel {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}.
* No Canadian Shift of the short [[front vowel]]s
* Pre-consonantal {{IPA|/r/}} is sometimes (though rarely) deleted.
* The flapping of intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} to alveolar tap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, is less common in the Maritimes. Therefore, ''battery'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈbætɹi]}} instead of {{IPA|[ˈbæɾ(ɨ)ɹi]}}.
* Especially among the older generation, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/hw/}} are not merged; that is, the beginning sound of ''why'', ''white'', and ''which'' is different from that of ''witch'', ''with'', and ''wear''.
* Like most varieties of CanE, Maritimer English contains [[Canadian raising]].

'''Nova Scotia'''
As with many other distinct dialects, vowels are a marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English. Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth. The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant /ɒ/. Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded. For example, body; popped; and gone. In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in the merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties. The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect. Instead, the front vowels are raised. For example, the vowel in had is raised to [hæed]; and camera is raised to [kæmra].

Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with the nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents. For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back vowel. These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants (many of whom arrived via Newfoundland) and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces. The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as a continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant. In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising.<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511676529.005 | chapter=Canadian Maritime English | title=The Lesser-Known Varieties of English | date=2010 | last1=Kiefte | first1=Michael | last2=Bird | first2=Elizabeth Kay-Raining | pages=59–71 | isbn=978-0-521-88396-2 }}</ref>

==== Newfoundland ====
{{Main|Newfoundland English}}

Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents. Newfoundland English differs in [[vowel]] [[pronunciation]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[syntax]], and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region. Its distinctiveness partly results from a European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01777.x|doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01777.x |title=Phonetic change in Newfoundland English |year=2012 |last1=Clarke |first1=Sandra |journal=World Englishes |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=503–518 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the [[kit-dress merger]]. The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently "pen" is pronounced more like "pin".

Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping. Here, the [[voiceless dental fricative]] /θ/ in words like ''myth'' and ''width'' are pronounced more like ''t'' or the [[voiced dental fricative]] /ð/ in words like ''the'' and ''these''. TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g. that, those, their, etc.).<ref>Clarke, Sandra. "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/newfoundland-and-labrador-english/phonetics-and-phonology/CC8CC18C1EBB88AA487101F4011FFE14 Phonetics and Phonology]". Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh UP, 2010. 19-66.
</ref>

==== Ontario ====
Canadian raising is quite strong throughout the province of [[Ontario]], except within the [[Ottawa Valley]]. The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development. This feature impacts the pronunciation of the {{IPA|/aɪ/}} sound in "right" and the {{IPA|/aʊ/}} sound in "lout". Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Erik R. |date=June 1991 |title=The Origin of Canadian Raising in Ontario |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/origin-of-canadian-raising-in-ontario/2558C7001D862B8B04EEDDDC9FCA85BD |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=147–170 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100014304 |s2cid=149218782 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Canadian Shift]] is also a common [[vowel shift]] found in Ontario. The retraction of {{IPA|/æ/}} was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairies]] or [[Atlantic Canada]] and men.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1   = Chambers
| first1  = J. K.
| title   = Canadian raising
| journal = Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique
| date    = Fall 1973
| volume  = 18
| issue   = 2
| pages   = 113–135
| doi     = 10.1017/S0008413100007350
| s2cid = 247196050
}}</ref>

In the southern part of [[Southwestern Ontario]] (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the [[Inland Northern American English]] dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York){{citation needed|date=April 2023}} though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my").

The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario, the area consisting of the Counties of [[Huron County, Ontario|Huron]], [[Bruce County, Ontario|Bruce]], [[Grey County, Ontario|Grey]], and [[Perth County, Ontario|Perth]], referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: ''prolly'' (probably), ''goin{{'}}'' (going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?"{{Clarification needed|reason=This section should be more specific and use the IPA. The 'dropping' described here is unremarkable.|date=July 2023}} It is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also, {{IPA|/ɜr/}} merge with {{IPA|/ɛr/}} to {{IPA|[ɛɹ]}}, with "were" sounding more like "wear".{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Residents of the [[Golden Horseshoe]] (including the [[Greater Toronto Area]]) are known to [[intervocalic alveolar flapping|merge the second {{IPA|/t/|cat=no}} with the {{IPA|/n/|cat=no}}]] in ''Toronto'', pronouncing the name variously as {{IPA|[təˈɹɒɾ̃o]}} or {{IPA|[ˈtɹɒɾ̃o]}}. This is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. Sometimes {{IPA|/ð/}} is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word ''southern'' is often pronounced with {{IPA|[aʊ]}}. In the area north of the [[Regional Municipality of York]] and south of [[Parry Sound, Ontario|Parry Sound]], notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably" is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the [[diphthong]] tends to be fronted (as a result the word ''about'' is pronounced as {{IPA|[əˈbɛʊt]}}). The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English.<ref>{{cite web
| url         = http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/english/economy/demographics/census/cenhi06-8.pdf
| title         = 2006 Census Highlights – Mother tongue and Language
| access-date         = 7 February 2017
| publisher         = [[Ontario]] Ministry of Finance
| archive-date         = 26 March 2009
| archive-url         = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211244/http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/english/economy/demographics/census/cenhi06-8.pdf
| url-status         = live
}}</ref> As a result [[Toronto slang|Toronto English]] has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada.<ref>Labov pp. 214–215.</ref>

In [[Eastern Ontario]], [[Canadian raising]] is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province. In [[Prescott and Russell United Counties, Ontario|Prescott and Russell]], parts of [[Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry United Counties|Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry]] and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In [[Lanark County, Ontario|Lanark County]], Western Ottawa and [[Leeds and Grenville United Counties, Ontario|Leeds-Grenville]] and the rest of [[Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry United Counties|Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry]], the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in [[Central Ontario]] and the [[Quinte]] area.

A linguistic enclave has also formed in the [[Ottawa Valley]], heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the [[Ottawa Valley twang]] (or brogue).<ref>Henry, Alison. 1992. Infinitives in a For-To Dialect. ''Natural Language & Linguistic Theory'' 2, 279.</ref> Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the [[cot–caught merger]], two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent is quite rare in the region today.<ref>Cheshire, Jenny. (ed.) 1991. ''English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives''. Cambridge University Press, 134.</ref>

==== Quebec ====
{{Main|Quebec English}}
English is a minority language in Quebec (with French the majority), but has many speakers in Montreal, the [[Eastern Townships]] and in the [[Gatineau]]-[[Ottawa]] region. A person whose mother tongue is English and who still speaks English is called an ''Anglophone'', versus a ''Francophone'', or French speaker.

Many people in [[Montreal]] distinguish between words like ''marry'' versus ''merry'' and ''parish'' versus ''perish'',<ref name="Labov" /> which are homophones to most other speakers of Canadian English. Quebec Anglophones generally pronounce French street names in Montreal as French words. ''Pie IX'' Boulevard is pronounced as in French: not as "pie nine" but as {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|iː|ˈ|n|ʊ|f}} {{respell|pee|NUUF|'}} (compare French /pi.nœf/). On the other hand, Anglophones pronounce the final ''d'' as in ''Bernard'' and ''Bouchard''; the word ''Montreal'' is pronounced as an English word and ''Rue Lambert-Closse'' is known as ''Clossy Street'' (vs French /klɔs/). In the city of Montreal, especially in some of the western suburbs like Côte-St-Luc and Hampstead, there is a strong Jewish influence in the English spoken in those areas. A large wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union before and after World War II is also evident today. Their English has a strong Yiddish influence, and there are some similarities to English spoken in New York. Words used mainly in Quebec and especially in Montreal are:<ref>Boberg, p. 36.</ref> ''stage'' for "apprenticeship" or "internship", ''copybook'' for a notebook, ''dépanneur'' or ''dep'' for a convenience store, and ''guichet'' for an ABM/ATM. It is also common for Anglophones, particularly those of Greek or Italian descent, to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents such as "open" and "close" for "on" and "off" or "Open the lights, please" for "Turn on the lights, please".

==== West ====
Western Canadian English describes the English spoken in the four most western provinces—[[British Columbia]], [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], and [[Manitoba]]. [[British Columbia]], in particular is a sub-zone on the lexical level. Phonetically, Western Canadian English has much more {{IPA|/æɡ/}} raising and much less {{IPA|/æn/}} than further east, and Canadian raised {{IPA|/aʊ/}} is further back.<ref name=":2" />

==== British Columbia ====
{{See also|Pacific Northwest English}}
British Columbia English shares dialect features with both Standard Canadian English and the American Pacific Northwest English. In [[Vancouver]], speakers exhibit more vowel retraction of {{IPA|/æ/}} before nasals than people from [[Toronto]], and this retraction may become a regional marker of West Coast English.<ref>Erin Hall "Regional variation in Canadian English vowel backing"</ref> {{IPA|/ɛɡ/}} raising (found in words such as beg, leg, and peg) and {{IPA|/æɡ/}} raising (found words such as bag, lag and rag), a prominent feature in Northwestern American speakers, is also found in Vancouver speakers, causing "beg" to sound like the first syllable of "bagel" and "bag" to be similar.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last    = Swan
| first   = Julia
| year    = 2016
| title   = Canadian English in the Pacific Northwest: A phonetic comparison of Vancouver, BC and Seattle, WA
| journal = Proceedings of the 2016 Annual Conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Swan |first=Julia Thomas |type=PhD |title=Language Ideologies, Border Effects, and Dialectal Variation: Evidence from /æ/, /aʊ/, and /aɪ/ in Seattle, WA and Vancouver, B.C. |url=https://www.academia.edu/27285498 |publisher=University of Chicago}}</ref> In the past, the ANAE reported that Vancouverites' participation in the Canadian raising of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} was questionable,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=206}}</ref> but nowadays they tend to raise both {{IPA|/aɪ/}} and {{IPA|/aʊ/}}.<ref name=":2" /> The "o" in such words as ''holy, goal, load, know,'' etc. is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, {{IPA|[o]}}, but not as rounded as in the Prairies where there are strong Scandinavian, Slavic and German influences, which can lend to a more stereotypical "Canadian" accent.

Finally, there is also the /t/ sound which according to Gregg (2016), "with many [Vancouver] speakers [is] intrusive between /l/ or /n/ and /s/ in words like sense {{IPA|/sɛnts/}}, Wilson /wɪltsən/ [and] also /'ɒltsoʊ/ ".<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/S000841310002483X | title=Notes on the Pronunciation of Canadian English as Spoken in Vancouver, B.C. | date=1957 | last1=Gregg | first1=R. J. | journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique | volume=3 | pages=20–26 }}</ref>

====Saskatchewan====
English in Saskatchewan has its pool of phonetic features shared with other provinces used by certain demographics. For instance, it has the consonant variables /ntV/ and /VtV/, the latter being a common feature of North American English and is defined as the intervoicing of /t/ between vowels. Meanwhile, /ntV/ "frequently occurs in words such as "centre" and "twenty" where /t/ follows the alveolar nasal /n/ and precedes an unstressed vowel".<ref name="dspace.library.uvic.ca">Nylvek, Judith A. Canadian English in Saskatchewan: A Sociolinguistic Survey of Four Selected Regions, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1992.
https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/9545</ref> According to Nylvek (1992), both variables of /t/ are generally more often used by younger male over older female speakers.<ref name="dspace.library.uvic.ca"/>

== Grammar ==

There are a handful of syntactical practices unique to Canadian English. When writing, Canadians may start a sentence with ''As well'', in the sense of "in addition"; this construction is a Canadianism.<ref>Trudgill and Hannah, ''International English'' (4th edition), p. 76.</ref>

North American English prefers ''have got'' to ''have'' to denote possession or obligation (as in ''I've got a car'' vs. ''I have a car''); Canadian English differs from American English in tending to eschew plain ''got'' (''I got a car''), which is a common third option in informal US English.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last         = Tagliamonte
| first        = Sali
| s2cid = 143528477
| year         = 2006
| title        = ''So cool, right?'': Canadian English Entering the 21st Century
| journal      = The Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique
| volume       = 51
| issue        = 2
| pages        = 309–331
| doi          = 10.1353/cjl.2008.0018
}}</ref>

The grammatical construction "''be done'' something" means roughly "''have/has finished'' something". For example, "I am done my homework" and "The dog is done dinner" are genuine sentences in this dialect, respectively meaning "I have finished my homework" and "The dog has finished dinner". Another example, "Let's start after you're done all the coffee", means "Let's start after you've finished all the coffee". This is not exactly the same as the standard construction "''to be done with'' something", since "She is done the computer" can only mean "She is done with the computer" in one sense: "She has finished (building) the computer".<ref>"[https://ygdp.yale.edu/phenomena/done-my-homework Done My Homework] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404213645/https://ygdp.yale.edu/phenomena/done-my-homework |date=4 April 2023 }}". ''Yale Grammatical Diversity Project English in North America''. Yale University. 2017.</ref><ref>Fruehwald, Josef; Myler, Neil (2015). "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a56/7362c50cafd4db050e31e727c7309fad8147.pdf I'm done my homework—Case assignment in a stative passive". ''Linguistic Variation'', 15(2), Section 3.1.1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040859/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/%5CI%27m-done-my-homework.%22-%7B-Case-assignment-in-a-Fruehwald-Myler/0a567362c50cafd4db050e31e727c7309fad8147?p2df |date=11 April 2023 }}</ref>

=== Date and time notation ===
[[File:Queenston Bridge Canada Passport Bridge.JPG|thumb|[[Canadian passport]] stamp from [[Queenston Bridge]], showing the date 8 June 2014]]

{{Main|Date and time notation in Canada}}

Date and time notation in Canadian English is a mixture of British and American practices. The date can be written in the form of either "{{Not a typo|July 1, 2017}}" or "1 July 2017"; the latter is common in more formal writing and bilingual contexts.<ref name="CollishawDate">{{cite journal
 |last1        = Collishaw
 |first1       = Barbara
 |title        = FAQs on Writing the Date
 |journal      = Terminology Update
 |year         = 2002
 |volume       = 35
 |issue        = 2
 |page         = 12
 |url          = https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/favart/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_titls&page=9geHWsOpC7ZI.html
 |access-date  = 11 April 2023
 |archive-date = 8 August 2018
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20180808171827/http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/favart/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_titls&page=9geHWsOpC7ZI.html
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> The [[Government of Canada]] only recommends writing all-numeric dates in the form of YYYY-MM-DD (e.g. 2017-07-01), following [[ISO 8601]].<ref>{{cite book
 |via= [[Public Works and Government Services Canada]], [[Translation Bureau]]
 |title      = The Canadian style: A guide to writing and editing
 |date       = 1997
 |publisher  = Dundurn Press
 |isbn       = 978-1-55002-276-6
 |edition    = Rev.
 |chapter    = 5.14: Dates
 |page       = [https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse/page/97 97]
 |chapter-url = https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chapsect5&info0=5.14
 |url        = https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse
|url-access = registration
 }}</ref> Nonetheless, the traditional DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY systems remain in everyday use, which can be interpreted in multiple ways: 01/07/17 can mean either 1 July 2017 or 7 January 2017. [[Private members' bills]] have repeatedly attempted to clarify the situation.<ref>{{cite news
 |last1        = Hannay
 |first1       = Chris
 |title        = Tory MP's bill seeks to clarify how dates are written in legal proceedings
 |url          = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/mps-bill-seeks-to-clarify-how-dates-are-written-in-legal-proceedings/article27986702/
 |access-date  = 29 March 2018
 |work         = The Globe and Mail
 |date         = 1 January 2016
 |archive-date = 7 April 2017
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20170407162730/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/mps-bill-seeks-to-clarify-how-dates-are-written-in-legal-proceedings/article27986702/
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> In business communication and filing systems the YYMMDD is used to assist in automatic ordering of electronic files.

The government also recommends use of the [[24-hour clock]], which is widely used in contexts such as transportation schedules, parking meters, and data transmission.<ref name="CollishawTime">{{cite journal
 |last1        = Collishaw
 |first1       = Barbara
 |title        = FAQs on Writing the Time of Day
 |journal      = Terminology Update
 |year         = 2002
 |volume       = 35
 |issue        = 3
 |page         = 11
 |url          = https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/favart/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_titls&page=9qo3G9wQtvTo.html
 |access-date  = 11 April 2023
 |archive-date = 14 July 2018
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20180714013012/http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/favart/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_titls&page=9qo3G9wQtvTo.html
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> Many speakers of English use the [[12-hour clock]] in everyday speech, even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom.

== Vocabulary ==
Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English, but also has many non-American terms distinctively shared instead with Britain. British and American terms also can coexist in Canadian English to various extents, sometimes with new nuances in meaning; a classic example is {{lang|italic=yes|en-GB|holiday}} (British) often used interchangeably with {{lang|italic=yes|en-US|vacation}} (American), though, in Canadian speech, the latter can more narrowly mean a trip elsewhere and the former can mean general time off work.  In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features some words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. A good resource for these and other words is ''[[A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles]]'', which is currently being revised at the [[University of British Columbia]] in [[Vancouver]], British Columbia. The Canadian public appears to take interest in unique "Canadianisms": words that are distinctively characteristic of Canadian English—though perhaps not exclusive to Canada; there is some disagreement about the extent to which "Canadianism" means a term actually unique to Canada, with such an understanding possibly overstated by the popular media.<ref name="Dollinger 2008" /><ref>"[https://www.academia.edu/4002053/Uniquely_Canadian_Eh_Review_of_Barber_Katherine._2007._Only_in_Canada_You_Say_A_Treasury_of_Canadian_Language._Oxford_University_Press Uniquely Canadian, Eh?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021064829/http://www.academia.edu/4002053/Uniquely_Canadian_Eh_Review_of_Barber_Katherine._2007._Only_in_Canada_You_Say_A_Treasury_of_Canadian_Language._Oxford_University_Press |date=2017-10-21 }}" Review of Barber, Katherine by Stefan Dollinger. 2007. ''Only in Canada You Say: A Treasury of Canadian Language''. Oxford University Press.</ref> As a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire—for example, {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|constable}}, for a police officer of the lowest rank, and {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|chartered accountant}}.

=== Regional variation ===
While Canadian English has vocabulary that distinguishes it from other varieties of English across the world,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Avis |first1=Walter S. |title=A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles |last2=Crate |first2=Charles |last3=Drysdale |first3=Patrick |last4=Leechman |first4=Douglas |last5=Scargill |first5=Matthew H. |last6=Lovell |first6=Charles J. |publisher=Gage Education |year=1991 |edition=1st ed [1967 reprint] |pages=n/a (online edition)}}</ref> there is significant regional variation in its lexis within Canada as well. A balanced cross-continental sample of 1800 Canadians and 360 Americans<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boberg |first=Charles |date=2005 |title=The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: new variables and methods in the study of North American English |journal=American Speech |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=29|doi=10.1215/00031283-80-1-22 }}</ref> the Canada and the USA is the result of Boberg's North American Regional Vocabulary Survey (NARVS), a questionnaire employed by Boberg from 1999–2007 <ref name="Archived copy">{{Cite journal |journal=World Englishes |url=https://www.academia.edu/4001738 |title=On the Autonomy and Homogeneity of Canadian English |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=449–466 |year=2012 |access-date=11 April 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406204237/https://www.academia.edu/4001738/On_the_Autonomy_and_Homogeneity_of_Canadian_English_with_Sandra_Clarke_ |url-status=live |last1=Dollinger |first1=Stefan |last2=Clarke |first2=Sandra |doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01773.x }}</ref> that sought out lexical items that vary regionally within Canada. Six regions were identified in the NARVS data collection: The West, which includes British Columbia and the Prairies; Ontario; Quebec, which represents data from Montreal mostly; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island; and Newfoundland.<ref name="Archived copy"/> Many regional differences in the lexis are item-specific. For example, one of these items has to do with the nationally enjoyed meal of pizza, and more specifically, the term used to refer to a pizza that features all available toppings. While Atlantic Canada refers to this order as ‘the works,’ the majority term used from eastern Ontario to the West Coast is deluxe, and terms such as 'all-dressed' and 'everything-on-it' are used in Quebec and Toronto, respectively. Other examples include the regionally varied usage of running shoes/runners/sneakers to describe athletic shoes, and notebook/scribbler/cahier to describe any type of plain [[Notebook|note-pad.]]<ref name="Archived copy"/> Despite the regional variation of vocabulary items within Canada, the lexis of Canadian English still maintains greater commonality between its own regions than it does with American English or British English.

==== Quebec ====
Quebec recognizes French as its primary language. As a result, English has no official status in Quebec and is not used often in the public sphere. Although, in more metropolitan areas such as Montreal or Quebec City, it is not uncommon to see English media in public, such as in advertisements and store-fronts. Also, the provincial government must officially be referred to as the "Gouvernement du Québec", regardless of the language being used by the speaker. While the lexical catalog of Quebec English contains items influenced or borrowed by French, the influence of the dominant French language on Quebec English is marginal.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01776.x?saml_referrer | doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01776.x | title=English as a minority language in Quebec | year=2012 | last1=Boberg | first1=Charles | journal=World Englishes | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages=493–502 | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408095502/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01776.x?saml_referrer | url-status=live | url-access=subscription }}</ref> The francophone dominance in Quebec makes the province a linguistic anomaly within Canada, where English maintains a negligible role in government and public domains.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com"/> The French influence on Quebec English operates through five distinct processes, as identified by Charles Boberg: elective direct lexical transfer of non-English words (e.g., garderie for daycare), imposed direct lexical transfer of non-English words, for example, SAQ for ''Société des alcools du Québec'', loan translation/calques such as 'all-dressed' for the French equivalent 'toute garnie'. Semantic shifts of existing English words, like 'magasin' for 'store', in addition to syntactic influences; e.g, "we're living here three years" instead of the English "we've been living here for three years".<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com"/> Although Quebec English differs from other Canadian regional lexes due to its special contact with French, it still shares some similarities with the lexis of other Canadian regions. For instance, the use of lexical items such as all-dressed has been successfully transferred to most other Canadian regional lexes.<ref name="Archived copy"/>

==== Ontario ====
Southern Ontario was initially settled by white Protestants, with the late 19th century witnessing the migration of white Protestant settlers from Ontario to western Canada following the suppression of the Métis opposition. This migration facilitated the transplantation of the Ontario accent and the emergence of a homogeneous Canadian English dialect.<ref name="hdl.handle.net">{{cite book | url=http://hdl.handle.net/1974/27537 | hdl=1974/27537 | title=Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader | year=2010 | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=11 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040907/https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/27537 | url-status=live | last1=Gold | first1=Elaine | last2=McAlpine | first2=Janice }}</ref> Distinctive to Ontario are Canadianisms such as concession roads, which refer to roads that transect a township, dew-worm, which refers to an earthworm, and fire-reel, which refers to a fire truck.<ref name="hdl.handle.net"/> Walter S. Avis identified several linguistic features characteristic of Ontarians, including their preference for the word vacation, rather than holiday—which is considered more British English—and sack over paper bag. While there may be numerous such lexical differences in the speech of provincial and national borderers, Avis asserts that these are relatively minor compared to the linguistic features held in common.<ref name="cambridge.org">{{Cite journal |title=Speech Differences along the Ontario-United States Border  |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique |date=October 1954 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–18 |doi=10.1017/S0319573200025145 |last1=Avis |first1=Walter S. |s2cid=247198153 }}</ref> Furthermore, Avis suggests that the difference between American English and Ontario English is relatively small near the border due to their close proximity. The historical settlement patterns of southern Ontario, coupled with linguistic research, indicate the existence of distinctively Ontarian lexical items. However, Ontario maintains greater similarities with other Canadian regions than it does with the neighbouring American English and its regional variations.<ref name="cambridge.org"/>

Northern Ontario English has several distinct qualities stemming from its large [[Franco-Ontarian]] population. As a result several [[French language|French]] and English words are used interchangeably. A number of phrases and expressions may also be found in Northern Ontario that are not present in the rest of the province,<ref>{{cite web |last=Stone |first=Laura |date=27 September 2011 |title=Looking for true Canadian English, there? Go north |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2011/09/27/looking_for_true_canadian_english_there_go_north.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013145609/http://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2011/09/27/looking_for_true_canadian_english_there_go_north.html |archive-date=13 October 2014 |access-date=5 August 2014 |work=Toronto Star}}</ref> such as the use of ''camp'' for a summer home where Southern Ontario speakers would idiomatically use [[cottage]].

In the mid to late 90s, certain words from [[Jamaican Patois]], Arabic and Somali were incorporated into the local variety of English by [[Toronto]] youth, especially in immigrant communities, thus giving rise to [[Toronto slang]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Elango |first1=Vidhya |last2=Denis |first2=Derek |title=Variable BAN-laxing in Multicultural Toronto English |url=https://cla-acl.ca/pdfs/resumes-2021-abstracts/ElangoDenis.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729050620/https://cla-acl.ca/pdfs/resumes-2021-abstracts/ElangoDenis.pdf |archive-date=2021-07-29 |website=(CLA) Canadian Linguistic Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-17 |title=The past, present, and future of Canadian English: What our accent tells us about being Canadian |url=https://the-pigeon.ca/2020/07/17/canadian-accent/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505081732/https://the-pigeon.ca/2020/07/17/canadian-accent/ |archive-date=5 May 2022 |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=The Pigeon |language=en-CA}}</ref> These examples included words such as ''mandem'', ''styll'', ''wallahi'', ''wasteman'', and ''yute''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Denis |first1=Derek |date=2016-10-05 |title=A note on mans in Toronto |url=https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twpl/article/view/26973 |url-status=live |journal=Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=37 |doi=10.33137/twpl.v37i0.26973 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213022451/https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twpl/article/view/26973 |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=11 April 2023 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-08 |title=Opinion: The revolution of Toronto slang |url=https://thevarsity.ca/2020/03/08/opinion-the-revolution-of-toronto-slang/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040922/https://thevarsity.ca/2020/03/08/opinion-the-revolution-of-toronto-slang/ |archive-date=11 April 2023 |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=The Varsity |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) ====
The Prairies, consisting of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, have their own lexical features. The linguistic legacy from the settlement patterns in these regions, along with the Indigenous communities, specifically the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carry certain linguistic traits inherited from the French, Indigenous, and Celtic forebears. The linguistic features brought by Ukrainian, German, and Mennonite populations in the Saskatchewan Valley of Saskatchewan and Red River Valley of Manitoba have also influenced the lexis of the Prairies. Some terms are derived from these groups and some are formed within the region by locals throughout time. An example of the former is the high-profile variable bunnyhug, a term for a hooded sweatshirt in Saskatchewan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305326586 |title=the Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice |access-date=11 April 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406204237/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305326586_The_Written_Questionnaire_in_Social_Dialectology_History_Theory_Practice |url-status=live }}</ref> As discussed in The Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles,<ref name="DCHP-2">{{cite web | url=http://www.dchp.ca/dchp2/ | title=DCHP-2 | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=18 October 2019 | archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/4160/20191018173237/http://www.dchp.ca/dchp2/ | url-status=live }}</ref> bunnyhug is purposely and commonly used by young Saskatchewan speakers to indicate a sense of provincial identity, and is referred to as a Saskatchewanism. It should be further noted that it is assumed based on circumstantial evidence that teenagers played a crucial and special role in the spread and adoption of the term bunnyhug for hooded sweatshirts.<ref name="DCHP-2"/> Across Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba there are other terms consistent in or throughout the 3 provinces. Biffed is a term for falling, such as "John biffed it over there". Pickerel is Manitoba's official fish, also known as Walleye. Play structure is used to describe a playground for children consisting of monkey bars, slides, etc.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://globalnews.ca/news/2479009/can-you-speak-prairies-here-is-your-guide-to-deciphering-the-dialect/ | title=Can you speak Prairies? Here is your guide to deciphering the dialect &#124; Globalnews.ca | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408095503/https://globalnews.ca/news/2479009/can-you-speak-prairies-here-is-your-guide-to-deciphering-the-dialect/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick & Nova Scotia, PEI, Newfoundland)====
Canada's Atlantic provinces were the first part of North America to be explored by Europeans. The Atlantic provinces, historically and collectively called the Maritimes, consist of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland and Labrador, which is not part of the Maritimes, is also part of Atlantic Canada. The historical immigrants from Europe have shaped cultures and lexical catalogs across the regions of Atlantic Canada that reflect British, Scottish, Gaelic, and French customs.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thecanadaguide.com/places/atlantic-canada/ | title=Atlantic Canada | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=6 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406204238/https://thecanadaguide.com/places/atlantic-canada/ | url-status=live }}</ref> The vernacular variations of English spoken in the Atlantic region of Canada. Newfoundland and Labrador English (NLE) possesses unique vocabulary compared to standard Canadian English. The Dictionary of Newfoundland English covers the vocabulary common to Newfoundlanders, such as Newfoundland "screech rum", a Newfoundland-specific brand of rum; mummering, referring to a Christmas tradition; and gut-foundered, meaning starving or fastened.<ref>{{cite thesis | url=https://research.library.mun.ca/13789/ | title=The rough food mystique: The evolution of Newfoundland food culture, 1945-1975 | date=March 2019 | publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland | type=masters | last1=Alford | first1=Norma | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=6 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406204238/https://research.library.mun.ca/13789/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Nova Scotia also is home to its own vocabulary. The term "Sobeys bag", used to refer to a plastic grocery bag, originates from the Nova Scotian grocery store chain [[Sobeys]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/maritime-dictionary-slang-canadian-english-scribbler-1.4040334 |title='Sobeys bag' and 'scribbler' are uniquely Maritime terms, says new dictionary |access-date=11 April 2023 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409044710/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/maritime-dictionary-slang-canadian-english-scribbler-1.4040334 |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, Prince Edward Island has its own vocabulary and dictionary. For example, angishore refers to a fisherman who is too lazy to fish and likely is a lexical item originating from Irish Gaelic settlers in Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 | jstor=10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 | title=Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English | year=1988 | publisher=University of Toronto Press | isbn=9780802079046 | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=7 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407162227/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 | url-status=live }}</ref> Sarah Sawler, a writer from Halifax, highlights terms that are common to Maritimes, such as dooryard for front yard, owly for when someone is angry or irritable, and biff for throw.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.etalk.ca/fun/stuff-youll-hear-maritimes.html | title=Stuff you'll only ever hear in the Maritimes | date=March 2020 | access-date=11 April 2023 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408095514/https://www.etalk.ca/fun/stuff-youll-hear-maritimes.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Education ===
The term ''college'', which refers to post-secondary education in general in the US, refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as [[federated school]]s within some Canadian universities. Most often, a ''college'' is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a [[CEGEP]] in Quebec. In Canada, {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|college student}} might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management, an equivalent of this would be an [[associate degree]] in the United States. In contrast, {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|university student}} is the term for someone earning a [[bachelor's degree]], typically at a post-secondary university institution. Hence, the term {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|going to college}} in Canada does not have the same meaning as {{lang|italic=yes|en-CA|going to university}}, unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant.

Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally "the principal", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding their name, i.e., "Principal Smith". The assistant to the principal is not titled as "assistant principal", but rather as "vice-principal", although the former is not unknown. This usage is identical to that in Northern Ireland.

Canadian universities publish ''calendars'' or ''schedules'', not ''catalogs'' as in the US. Canadian students ''write'' or ''take'' exams (in the US, students generally "take" exams while teachers "write" them); they rarely ''sit'' them (standard British usage). Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called ''invigilators'' as in Britain, or sometimes ''proctors'' as in the US; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution.<ref>{{Cite web
| url   = https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/proctor
| title = proctor |website=Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=5 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305142751/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/proctor|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Successive years of school are usually referred to as ''grade one'', ''grade two'', and so on. In Quebec, Francophone speakers will often say ''primary one'', ''primary two'' as a direct translation from the [[French language|French]], and so on; while Anglophones will say ''grade one'', ''grade two''. These terms are comparable with the American ''first grade, second grade'' (which is used in Canada, yet is rare), English/Welsh ''Year 1, Year 2'', Scottish/Northern Irish ''Primary 1, Primary 2'' or ''P1, P2'', and Southern Irish ''First Class, Second Class'' and so on.<ref name="autogenerated2">''American Speech'' 80.1 (2005), p. 47.</ref> The year of school before grade 1 is usually called "Kindergarten", with the exception of [[Nova Scotia]], where it is called "grade primary". In addition, children younger than the public school start age may attend 'pre-primary',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pre-Primary Program |url=https://www.ednet.ns.ca/pre-primary |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=Nova Scotia Education and Early Childhood Development |date=13 August 2019 }}</ref> although this is a newer addition to the Nova Scotian public-school system, and is not used frequently elsewhere.

In parts of the US, the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead, such as "grade nine" in lieu of freshman.<ref name="Speech">''American Speech'' 80.1 (2005), p. 48.</ref> As for higher education, only the term ''freshman'' (often reduced to ''frosh'') has some currency in Canada.<ref name="Speech" /> Moreover, some Canadian public-school systems have adolescents start high-school in 'Grade 10' or, the sophomore year, although, this can depend on the province and even vary within a school-district. The American usages "sophomore", "junior" and "senior" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech. The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, 'Sarah is starting Grade 10 this year', which Americans would state as 'Sarah is going to be a sophomore this year'. Similarly in the post-secondary education context, 'Francois is in second year of university' rather than the Americanism 'Francois is a sophomore in university'.

Canadian students use the term ''marks'' (more common in England) or ''grades'' (more common in the US) to refer to their results.<ref name="Speech" /> Usage is mixed, although ''marks'' more commonly refer to a single score whereas ''grades'' often refers to the cumulative score in that class.

=== Units of measurement ===
Unlike in the United States, use of [[SI|metric]] units within a majority of industries is standard in Canada, as a result of the [[metrication in Canada|partial national adoption of the metric system]] during the mid-to-late 1970s that was eventually stalled; this has spawned some colloquial usages such as ''klick'' for kilometre.

Nonetheless, [[United States customary units|US units]] are still used in many situations. [[Imperial units|Imperial volumes]] are also used, albeit rarely—although many Canadians and Americans mistakenly conflate the measurement systems despite their slight differences from each other (e.g. US, Canadian, and metric cups are 237{{nbsp}}ml, 227{{nbsp}}ml, and 250{{nbsp}}mL respectively).

For example, most [[English Canadians]] state their weight and height in pounds and feet/inches, respectively. This is also the case for many Quebec Francophones. Distances while playing golf are always marked and discussed in yards, though official scorecards may also show metres. Temperatures for cooking or pools are often given in [[Fahrenheit]], while the weather is given in [[Celsius]]. Directions in the [[Prairie provinces]] are sometimes given using miles, because the country roads generally follow the mile-based grid of the [[Dominion Land Survey]]. Motor vehicle speed limits are measured in kilometres per hour.

Canadians measure floor areas, both residential and commercial, in square feet or square metres. Land area is in square feet, square metres, acres or hectares. Fuel efficiency is more often discussed in the metric L/100&nbsp;km than miles per [[Gallon#US liquid gallon|US gallon]]. The [[Letter (paper size)|Letter]] [[paper size]] of 8.5&nbsp;inches × 11&nbsp;inches is used instead of the international and metric equivalent [[ISO 216#A series|A4]] size of 210&nbsp;mm × 297&nbsp;mm. Beer cans are 355{{nbsp}}mL (12 US oz), while beer bottles are typically 341{{nbsp}}mL (12 Imperial oz), and draft beer is sold in various units; US or Imperial oz, US or Imperial pint, or occasionally mL.

Building materials are used in soft conversions of imperial sizes, but often purchased in relation to the imperial sizes. For example, 8-inch [[concrete masonry unit]]s can be referred to as an 8-inch CMU or 190 CMU. The actual material used in the US and Canada is the same.

=== Transport ===
* Although Canadian lexicon features both ''railway'' and ''railroad'', ''railway'' is the usual term in naming (witness [[Canadian National Railway]] and [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), though ''railroad'' can be heard fairly frequently in some regions; most [[rail terminology]] in Canada follows American usage (for example, ''ties'' and ''cars'' rather than ''sleepers'' and ''carriages'').
* A two-way ticket can be either a ''round-trip'' (American term) or a ''return'' (British term).
* The terms ''highway'' (for example, [[Trans-Canada Highway]]), ''expressway'' (Central Canada, as in the [[Gardiner Expressway]]) and ''freeway'' ([[Sherwood Park Freeway]], [[Edmonton]]) are often used to describe various high-speed roads with varying levels of access control. Generally, but not exclusively, ''highway'' refers to any provincially funded road regardless of its access control. Often such roads will be numbered. Similar to the US, the terms ''expressway'' and ''freeway'' are often used interchangeably to refer to [[controlled-access highways]], that is, divided highways with access only at grade-separated interchanges (for example, a [[400-series highways (Ontario)|400-Series Highway]] in Ontario).

''Expressway'' may also refer to a [[limited-access road]] that has control of access but has [[At-grade intersection|at-grade]] junctions, railway crossings (for example, the [[Harbour Expressway]] in [[Thunder Bay]].) Sometimes the term ''[[Parkway (disambiguation)|Parkway]]'' is also used (for example, the [[Hanlon Parkway]] in [[Guelph]]). In [[Saskatchewan]], the term 'grid road' is used to refer to minor highways or rural roads, usually gravel, referring to the 'grid' upon which they were originally designed. In [[Quebec]], freeways and expressways are called [[Autoroutes of Quebec|autoroutes]].

In [[Alberta]], the generic ''Trail'' is often used to describe a freeway, expressway or major urban street (for example, [[Deerfoot Trail]], [[Macleod Trail]] or [[Crowchild Trail]] in [[Calgary]], [[Yellowhead Trail]], [[Victoria Trail]] or [[St. Albert Trail|Mark Messier/St.Albert Trail]] in [[Edmonton]]). The British term ''[[motorway]]'' is not used. The American terms ''[[Toll road|turnpike]]'' and ''[[tollway]]'' for a toll road are not common. The term ''throughway'' or ''[[freeway|thruway]]'' was used for first tolled limited-access highways (for example, the Deas Island Throughway, now Highway 99, from [[Vancouver]], BC, to [[Blaine, Washington]], USA or the Saint John Throughway (Highway 1) in [[Saint John, NB]]), but this term is not common anymore. In everyday speech, when a particular roadway is not being specified, the term ''highway'' is generally or exclusively used.
* A railway at-grade junction can be called a ''[[level crossing]],'' as well as the term ''[[grade crossing]]'', which is commonly used in the US.<ref>{{Cite web
| url          = https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/railsafety/railsafety-333.htm
| title        = Grade Crossing Safety
| publisher        = Government of Canada, Transport Canada, Safety and Security, Rail Safety
| website      = tc.gc.ca
| access-date  = 24 January 2017
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20170129004919/http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/railsafety/railsafety-333.htm
| archive-date = 29 January 2017
| url-status     = live
}}</ref>
* A railway or highway crossing overhead is an ''overpass'' or ''underpass'', depending on which part of the crossing is referred to (the two are used more or less interchangeably);<ref name="Canadian Oxford Dictionary">{{cite book |editor1-last=Barber |editor1-first=Katherine |title=Canadian Oxford Dictionary |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195418163 |edition=2.}}</ref>{{rp|1109,1695}} the British term ''flyover'' is sometimes used, as is ''subway''.<ref name="Canadian Oxford Dictionary"/>{{rp|576,1553}}
* In Quebec, English speakers often use the word "metro" to mean [[Rapid transit|subway]]. Non-native Anglophones of Quebec will also use the designated proper title "Metro" to describe the Montreal subway system.
* The term ''Texas gate'' refers to the type of [[cattle grid|metal grid]] called a ''cattle guard'' in American English or a ''cattle grid'' in British English.
* Depending on the region, large trucks used to transport and deliver goods are referred to as 'transport trucks' (e.g., used in Ontario and Alberta) or 'transfer trucks' (e.g., used in Prince Edward Island)

=== Politics ===
* While in standard usage the terms [[prime minister]] and [[premier]] are interchangeable terms for the head of an elected parliamentary government, Canadian English today generally follows a usage convention of reserving the title ''prime minister'' for the federal first minister and referring to provincial or territorial leaders as ''premiers''. Because [[Canadian French]] does not have separate terms for the two positions, using {{lang|fr|premier ministre}} for both, the title ''prime minister'' is sometimes seen in reference to a provincial leader when a Francophone is speaking or writing English. Also, until the 1970s the leader of the Ontario provincial government was officially styled ''prime minister''.
* When a majority of the elected members of the House of Commons or a provincial legislature are not members of the same party as the government, the situation is referred to as a minority government rather than a hung Parliament.
* To ''table'' a document in Canadian, in parliamentary usage, is to introduce or present it (as in Britain), whereas in the US it means to postpone consideration until a later date, often indefinitely. While the introduction meaning is the most common sense in non-parliamentary usage, the presentation meaning is also used in Canada. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary simply recommends avoiding the term in non-parliamentary context.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Barber |editor1-first=Katherine |title=The Canadian Oxford dictionary |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195418163 |page=1580 |edition=2nd |quote=Because both of these meanings are in use in Canada, confusion may arise if the verb table is used outside of a strictly parliamentary context, where the first sense [bring forward] should be understood. It is better to use a different verb altogether, such as present or postpone, as the context requires.}}</ref>
* In Canada, a committee is ''struck'', whereas in the US committees are appointed, formed, or created, etc.
* Several political terms are more in use in Canada than elsewhere, including ''[[riding (division)#Canada|riding]]'' (as a general term for a [[Parliament of Canada|parliamentary]] constituency or [[electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]], this term is unique to Canada). The term ''[[reeve (Canada)|reeve]]'' was at one time common for the equivalent of a mayor in some smaller municipalities in [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]], but is now falling into disuse. The title is still used for the leader of a rural municipality in [[Saskatchewan]], parts of [[Alberta]], and [[Manitoba]].
* The term ''Tory,'' used in Britain with a [[Toryism|similar meaning]], denotes a supporter of the present-day federal [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the historic [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|federal]] or provincial Progressive Conservative Party. The term [[Red Tory]] is also used to denote the more socially liberal wings of the Tory parties. [[Blue Tory]] is less commonly used, and refers to more strict fiscal (rather than social) conservatism. The use of ''Tory'' to mean a Loyalist in the time of the American Revolution is an American usage. The Canadian term is simply ''Loyalist''.<ref name ="Canadian Oxford Dictionary"/>{{rp|1644}} 
* Members of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] or a provincial Liberal party are sometimes referred to as ''Grits''. Historically, the term comes from the phrase ''Clear Grit'', used in [[Victorian era|Victorian times]] in Canada to denote an object of quality or a truthful person. The term was assumed as a nickname by Liberals by the 1850s.
* Members of the [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP) are sometimes nicknamed ''dippers'' (a clipped and altered form of ''NDPer'') or ''New Democrats''
* Members of the [[Bloc Québécois]] are sometimes referred to as {{lang|fr|Bloquistes}}. At the purely provincial level, members of Quebec's [[Parti Québécois]] are often referred to as {{lang|fr|Péquistes}}, and members of the Quebec provincial [[Action démocratique du Québec]] as {{lang|fr|Adéquistes}}.
* The term "Socred" is no longer common due to its namesake party's decline, but referred to members of the [[Canadian social credit movement|Social Credit Party]], and was particularly common in British Columbia<!--and Alberta?-->. It was not used for Social Credit members from Quebec, nor generally used for the federal caucus of that party; in both cases {{lang|fr|Créditiste}}, the French term, was used in English.
* Members of the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] are referred to by the title "Senator" preceding their name, as in the United States. Members of the [[House of Commons of Canada]], following British parliamentary nomenclature, are termed "Members of Parliament", and are referred to as "Jennifer Jones, MP" during their term of office only. Senators and members of the Privy Council are styled "The Honourable" for life, and the Prime Minister of Canada is styled "The Right Honourable" for life, as is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor General. This honorific may also be bestowed by Parliament, as it was to retiring deputy prime minister [[Herb Gray]] in 1996. Members of provincial legislatures do not have a pre-nominal style, except in certain provinces, such as Nova Scotia where members of the King's [[Executive Council of Nova Scotia]] are styled "The Honourable" for life, and are entitled to the use of the post-nominal letters "ECNS".<ref>{{cite web
| url        = http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/1st_read/b198.htm
| title        = BILL NO. 198| website       = Gov.ns.ca
| access-date        = 26 February 2011
| archive-date        = 8 June 2011
| archive-url        = https://web.archive.org/web/20110608070447/http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/1st_read/b198.htm
| url-status        = dead 
}}</ref> The Cabinet of Ontario serves concurrently (and not for life) as the [[Executive Council of Ontario]], while serving members are styled "The Honourable", but are not entitled to post-nominal letters.
* Members of provincial/territorial legislative assemblies are called [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLAs]] in all provinces and territories except: [[Ontario]], where they have been called [[Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)|Members of Provincial Parliament]] (MPPs) since 1938; [[Quebec]], where they have been called [[Member of the National Assembly (Quebec)|Members of the National Assembly]] (MNAs) since 1968; and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], where they are called [[Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly|Members of the House of Assembly]] (MHAs). Each abbreviation is used as a post-nominal during terms of office only.

=== Law ===
Lawyers in all parts of Canada, except Quebec, which has its own [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, are called "[[barrister]]s and [[solicitor]]s" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories must pass bar exams for, and is permitted to engage in, both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a [[fused profession|fused legal profession]]). The words ''lawyer'' and ''counsel'' (not ''counsellor'') predominate in everyday contexts; the word ''attorney'' refers to any personal representative. Canadian lawyers generally do not refer to themselves as "attorneys", a term that is common in the United States.

The equivalent of an American ''[[district attorney]]'', meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a ''[[crown attorney]]'' (in [[Ontario]]), ''crown counsel'' (in British Columbia), ''crown prosecutor'' or ''the crown'', on account of Canada's status as a [[constitutional monarchy]] in which [[the Crown]] is the locus of state power.

The words ''advocate'' and ''[[civil law notary|notary]]''&nbsp;– two distinct professions in Quebec civil law&nbsp;– are used to refer to that province's approximate equivalents of barrister and solicitor, respectively. It is not uncommon for English-speaking advocates in Quebec to refer to themselves in English as "barrister(s) and solicitor(s)", as most advocates chiefly perform what would traditionally be known as "solicitor's work", while only a minority of advocates actually appear in court. In Canada's [[common law]] provinces and territories, the word ''notary'' means strictly a [[notary public]].

Within the Canadian legal community itself, the word ''[[solicitor]]'' is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word ''attorney'' is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general). Despite the conceptual distinction between ''barrister'' and ''solicitor'', Canadian court documents would contain a phrase such as "''John Smith, ''solicitor'' for the Plaintiff''" even though "John Smith" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court. In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like "''I am the ''solicitor" for Mr. Tom Jones."

The word ''litigator'' is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word ''barrister'' is still employed to denote the same specialization.

Judges of Canada's superior courts, which exist at the provincial and territorial levels, are traditionally addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". This varies by jurisdiction, and some superior court judges prefer the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship".

[[Master (judiciary)|Masters]] are addressed as ''"Mr. Master"'' or simply ''"Sir."'' In British Columbia, masters are addressed as ''"Your Honour."''

Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as ''"Your Honour"''. Judges of the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of ''"Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice"''. [[Justice of The Peace#Canada|Justices of The Peace]] are addressed as ''"Your Worship"''. ''"Your Honour"'' is also the correct form of address for a [[Lieutenant-Governor (Canada)|Lieutenant Governor]].

A serious crime is called an [[indictable offence]], while a less-serious crime is called a [[summary offence|summary conviction offence]]. The older words [[felony]] and [[misdemeanour]], which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current ''[[Criminal Code (Canada)|Criminal Code]]'' (R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system. As noted throughout the ''Criminal Code'', a person accused of a crime is called ''the accused'' and not ''the defendant'', a term used instead in civil lawsuits.

In Canada, ''[[visible minority]]'' refers to a non-aboriginal person or group visibly not one of the majority race in a given population. The term comes from the ''[[Employment equity (Canada)|Canadian Employment Equity Act]]'', which defines such people as "persons, other than [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginal people]], who are non-[[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] in race or non-white in colour."<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/reportsandguides/visible-minorities.cfm |title=Visible Minority Population and Population Group Reference Guide, 2006 Census |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211044318/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/reportsandguides/visible-minorities.cfm |archive-date=11 December 2008 |website=StatsCan}}</ref> The term is used as a demographic category by [[Statistics Canada]]. The qualifier "visible" is used to distinguish such minorities from the "invisible" minorities determined by [[languages of Canada|language]] (English vs. French) and certain distinctions in [[religion in Canada|religion]] ([[Catholicism in Canada|Catholics]] vs. [[Orange Order in Canada|Protestants]]).<ref>{{Cite web
| url          = http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/ref/rp-guides/lang-eng.cfm
| title        = 2006 Census : Languages Reference Guide
| website      = Statistics Canada
| access-date  = 11 March 2018
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160826153103/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/ref/rp-guides/lang-eng.cfm
| archive-date = 26 August 2016
| url-status     = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |date=2021-09-17 |title=Visible minority of person |url=https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3Var.pl?Function=DEC&Id=45152 |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=Statistics Canada }}</ref>

A [[Counties of British Columbia|county in British Columbia]] means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States. The rough equivalent to "county" as used elsewhere is a "[[Regional District]]".

=== Places ===
Distinctive Canadianisms are:
* ''[[bachelor]]'': bachelor apartment, an apartment all in a single room, with a small bathroom attached ("They have a bachelor for rent").<ref>''Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary'', "bachelor".</ref> The usual American term is ''studio''. In Quebec, this is known as a ''one-and-a-half'' apartment; some Canadians, especially in Prince Edward Island, call it a ''loft''.<ref name="autogenerated1">Boberg 2005.</ref> In other  provinces ''loft'' refers to a second floor in  a condo unit or bungalow usually with second floor bedrooms   
* ''bluff'': small group of trees isolated by [[prairie]]
* ''camp'': in Northern Ontario, it refers to what is called a ''cottage'' in the rest of Ontario; often more specifically to a vacation home not directly adjacent to a body of water,  and a ''cabin'' in the West.<ref>Boberg 2005, p. 38.</ref> It is also used, to a lesser extent, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, as well as in parts of New England. It generally refers to vacation houses in rural areas.
* ''fire hall'': [[fire station]], firehouse.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fire%20hall |title=Fire hall |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]], Inc. |date=13 August 2010 |access-date=19 November 2019 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402110704/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fire%20hall |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''height of land'': a [[drainage divide]]. Originally American.<ref>Webster's New World College Dictionary, Wiley, 2004.</ref>
* ''parkade'': a [[parking garage]], especially in [[Western Canada|the West]].<ref name="autogenerated1" />
* ''[[washroom]]'':<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Dollinger |first1=Stefan |last2=Fee |first2=Margery |date=2017 |title="washroom" in Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition |url=http://apps.plotandscatter.com:8080/dchp2/Entries/view/washroom |url-status=live |access-date=6 Apr 2023 |website=www.dchp.ca/dchp2 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040914/http://apps.plotandscatter.com:8080/dchp2/Entries/view/washroom }}</ref> the general term for what is normally named ''public toilet'' or ''lavatory'' in Britain. In the United States (where it originated) the word was mostly replaced by ''restroom'' in the 20th century. Generally used only as a technical or commercial term outside of Canada. The word ''bathroom'' is also used.
* ''[[Indian reserve]]'', rather than the US term ''federal Indian reservation''. Often shortened to ''reserve'', especially when the meaning is clear from context; another slang variant of this term is the shortened ''res'' or (more commonly) ''rez''. Not to be confused with ''res'', which in the context of universities refers strictly to ''residences'' or ''halls of residence'' (compare to the US American ''dorms'' or ''dormitories''). Therefore, the sentences ''when I lived on rez'' and ''when I lived in res'' mean different things. The territory of the particular band nation is usually referred to on a map as ''(Band name here) First Nations I.R.''  
* ''[[rancherie]]'': the residential area of a First Nation reserve, used in BC only.
* ''[[quiggly hole]]'' and/or ''quiggly'': the depression in the ground left by a ''[[kekuli]]'' or pithouse. Groups of them are called "quiggly hole towns". Used in the BC Interior only.
* ''gas bar'': a [[filling station]] (gas station) with a central island, having pumps under a fixed metal or concrete awning.
* ''booze can'': an after-hours establishment where alcohol is served, often illegally.
* ''dépanneur'', or the diminutive form ''dep'', is often used by English speakers in Quebec. This is because [[convenience stores]] are called ''dépanneurs'' in Canadian French.
* ''snye'', a side-stream channel that rejoins a larger river, creating an island.
* slough: pond&nbsp;– usually a pond on a farm

=== Daily life ===
Terms common in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia and other Commonwealth nations but less frequent or nonexistent in the United States are:
* ''tin'' (as in ''tin of tuna''), for ''can'', especially among older speakers. Among younger speakers, ''can'' is more common, with ''tin'' referring to a can which is wider than it is tall as in "a tin of sardines" as opposed to a "can of soup".{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}
* ''cutlery'', for ''silverware'' or ''flatware'', where the material of which the utensil is made is not of consequence to the context in which it is used.
* ''serviette'', especially in Eastern Canada, for a paper table ''napkin''.<ref>{{Cite web
| url          = https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/serviette
| title        = Definition of SERVIETTE
| website      = Merriam-Webster
| access-date  = 17 August 2017
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171011045628/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/serviette
| archive-date = 11 October 2017
| url-status     = live
}}</ref>
* ''[[Tap (valve)|tap]]'', conspicuously more common than ''faucet'' in everyday usage.

The following are more or less distinctively Canadian:
* ''ABM'', ''bank machine'': synonymous with [[automated teller machine|ATM]] (which is also used, but much more widely than ABM by financial organizations in the country).<ref>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, ''ABM''; Boberg 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/banking/atm-fees.html|title=ATM fees |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|language=en|access-date=2018-07-29|date=8 June 2018|archive-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729081344/https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/banking/atm-fees.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cibc.com/en/personal-banking/ways-to-bank/atm-and-branch-network.html|title=ATM and Banking Centre Network |website=cibc.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-29|archive-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729081348/https://www.cibc.com/en/personal-banking/ways-to-bank/atm-and-branch-network.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tdcanadatrust.com/products-services/banking/electronic-banking/ATM.jsp|title=TD Green Machine ATM Machines |website=tdcanadatrust.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-29|archive-date=19 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719034214/https://www.td.com/ca/en/personal-banking/solutions/ways-to-bank/?tdtab=branch-atm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''BFI bin'': Dumpster, after a prominent Canadian waste management company, BFI Canada (which was eventually bought out and merged to become [[Waste Connections of Canada]]) in provinces where that company does business; compare to other [[generic trademark]]s such as [[Kleenex]], [[Xerox]], and even [[Dumpster]] itself.
* ''chesterfield'': originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a term for ''any'' couch or sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California).<ref>[http://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl OUP.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130211752/http://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl |date=30 January 2010 }} <!-- OALD link: just type "chesterfield" --></ref><ref>{{cite web
| url         = http://www.bartleby.com/61/94/C0279400.html
| title       = Bartleby.com: Great Books Online -- Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more
| url-status     = dead
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070218023015/http://www.bartleby.com/61/94/C0279400.html
| archive-date = 18 February 2007
}}</ref> Once a hallmark of CanE, ''chesterfield'', as with ''settee'' and ''davenport'', is now largely in decline among younger generations in the western and central regions.<ref>[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/couch.html Utoronto.ca] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912210235/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/couch.html |date=12 September 2007 }} J.K. Chambers, "The Canada-U.S. border as a vanishing isogloss: the evidence of chesterfield." Journal of English Linguistics 23 (1995): 156&ndash;166.</ref> ''Couch'' is now the most common term; ''sofa'' is also used.
* ''dart'': cigarette, used primarily by adolescents and young adults.
* ''dressing gown'' or ''housecoat'' or ''bathrobe'': a dressing gown and housecoat can be of silk or cotton, usually an attractive outer layer, while a bathrobe is made of absorbent fabric like a towel; in the United States, called a ''bathrobe''.
* ''eavestrough'': [[rain gutter]]. Also used, especially in the past, in the Northern and Western United States; the first recorded usage is in [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby-Dick]]'': "The tails tapering down that way, serve to carry off the water, d'ye see. Same with cocked hats; the cocks form gable-end eave-troughs {{sic}}, Flask."<ref>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, ''eavestrough''; Oxford English Dictionary; American Heritage Dictionary.</ref>
* ''flush'': toilet, used primarily by older speakers throughout the Maritimes.
* ''garburator'': (rhymes with ''carburetor'') a [[garbage disposal]].<ref>According to the ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' (second edition), ''garburator'' is "Canadian" and ''garbage disposal'' is "North American."</ref>
* ''hydro'': a common synonym for [[mains electricity|electrical service]], used primarily in New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia. Most of the power in these provinces is generated through [[hydroelectricity]], and suppliers' company names incorporate the term "Hydro". Usage: "I didn't pay my hydro bill so they shut off my lights." Hence ''hydrofield'' or ''hydro corridor'', a line of electricity transmission towers, usually in groups cutting across a city, and ''hydro lines/poles'', [[Overhead power line|electrical transmission lines]]/[[Utility pole|pole]]s.<ref>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, ''hydro''.</ref> These usages of ''hydro'' are also standard in the Australian state of [[Tasmania]]. Also in slang usage can refer to hydroponically grown marijuana.
* ''[[loonie]]'': the Canadian one-dollar coin; derived from the use of the [[common loon]] on the reverse. The ''[[toonie]]'' (less commonly spelled ''tooney'', ''twooney'', ''twoonie'') is the two-dollar coin. ''Loonie'' is also used to refer to the [[Canadian dollar|Canadian currency]], particularly when discussing the exchange rate with the [[United States dollar|US dollar]]; ''loonie'' and ''toonie'' describe coinage specifically. (for example, "I have a dollar in pennies" versus "I have three loonies in my pocket").
* ''pencil crayon'':<ref name=":0">{{cite book |editor    = Barber, Katherine
 |title     = The Canadian Oxford Dictionary
 |edition   = 1st
 |year      = 1998
 |publisher = Oxford University Press
 |isbn      = 978-0-19-541120-1
 |pages     = [https://archive.org/details/canadianoxforddi00barb/page/1075 1075]
 |url       = https://archive.org/details/canadianoxforddi00barb/page/1075
}}</ref> coloured pencil.
* ''pogie'' or ''pogey'': term referring to unemployment insurance, which is now officially called ''Employment'' Insurance in Canada. Derived from the use of ''pogey'' as a term for a poorhouse.<ref>{{cite web
| url         = http://home.comcast.net/~russ1980/stuff/Pogey.pdf
| title       = Pogey: What Does it Mean? Bonny, 2006
| access-date  = 26 February 2011
| url-status     = dead
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110812060347/http://home.comcast.net/~russ1980/stuff/Pogey.pdf
| archive-date = 12 August 2011
}}</ref> Not used for welfare, in which case the term is ''"the dole"'', as in ''"he's on the dole, eh?"''.
* ''[[Multistorey car park|parkade]]:'' multistorey parking garage.<ref name=":0" />

==== Apparel ====
The following are common in Canada, but not in the United States or the United Kingdom.
* ''runners'':<ref>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, ''runner''.</ref> running shoes, especially in [[Western Canada]].<ref>American Speech 80.1 (2005).</ref> Also used in [[Australian English]]<ref>Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary.</ref> and [[Irish English]].<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2009/0106/1230936690382.html Sometimes the gym doesn't fix it] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112005033/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2009/0106/1230936690382.html |date=12 November 2011 }}, ''[[The Irish Times]]'', Tuesday, 6 January 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/magazine/2008/0322/1206024702849.html Machismo ... or masochism?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112003112/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/magazine/2008/0322/1206024702849.html |date=12 November 2011 }}, ''The Irish Times''&nbsp;– Saturday 22 March 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2008/1007/1222959451495.html Stars in the running] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112021537/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2008/1007/1222959451495.html |date=12 November 2011 }}, ''The Irish Times'', Tuesday 7 October 2008</ref> Atlantic Canada prefers ''sneakers'' while central Canada (including Quebec and Ontario) prefers ''running shoes''.<ref>American Speech 80.1 (2005), p. 36.</ref>
* ''[[touque]]'' (also spelled ''toque'' or ''tuque''): a knitted winter hat. A similar hat would be called a ''beanie'' in the western United States and a ''watch cap'' in the eastern United States, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom. There seems to be no exact equivalent outside Canada, since the tuque is of French Canadian origin.
* ''bunnyhug'': a hooded sweatshirt, with or without a zipper. Used mainly in Saskatchewan.
* ''ginch/gonch/gitch/gotch'': underwear (usually men's or boys' underwear, more specifically briefs; whereas women's underwear are ''gotchies''), probably of Eastern European or Ukrainian origin. ''Gitch'' and ''gotch'' are primarily used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba while the variants with an ''n'' are common in Alberta and British Columbia.<ref>[http://www.doubletongued.org/index.php/dictionary/gonch/ Doubletongued.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122104734/http://www.doubletongued.org/index.php/dictionary/gonch |date=22 November 2008 }}, reference for gonch.</ref>

==== Food and beverage ====
* Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer ''pop'' over ''soda'' to refer to a carbonated beverage, but ''soda'' is understood to mean the same thing, in contrast to British English where ''soda'' refers specifically to soda ''water'' (US/Canadian ''seltzer water''). ''Soft drink'' is also extremely common throughout Canada.
* What Americans call ''Canadian bacon'' is named ''[[back bacon]]'' in Canada, or, if it is coated in cornmeal or ground peas, ''cornmeal bacon'' or ''[[peameal bacon]]''.
* What most Americans call a ''[[chocolate bar|candy bar]]'' is usually known as a ''chocolate bar'' (as in the United Kingdom). In certain areas surrounding the [[Bay of Fundy]], it is sometimes known as a ''nut bar''; this use is more popular in older generations. Legally only bars made of solid chocolate may be labelled chocolate bars.<ref>{{cite web
| title       = Decisions: Chocolate and Cocoa Products
| url         = http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/decisions/chocoe.shtml
| publisher   = Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| access-date  = 4 June 2012
| url-status     = dead
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20100427022122/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/decisions/chocoe.shtml
| archive-date = 27 April 2010
}}</ref>
* Even though the terms ''French fries'' and ''fries'' are used by Canadians, some speakers use the word ''chips'' (and its diminutive, ''chippies''). (Chips is always used when referring to ''[[fish and chips]]'', as elsewhere.)
* ''homogenized milk'' or ''homo milk'': milk containing [[Fat content of milk|3.25% milk fat]], typically called "whole milk" in the United States.
* ''brown bread'' refers to [[whole-wheat bread]], as in "Would you like white or brown bread for your toast?"
* An ''[[expiry date]]'' is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK ''Use By'' date). The term ''expiration date'' is more common in the United States (where ''expiry date'' is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products). The term ''Best Before'' also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste "as good".
* ''double-double'': a cup of coffee with two measures of cream and two of sugar,<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/double-double-now-you-can-look-it-up-1.511522|title = 'Double-double'? Now you can look it up|publisher = [[CBC News]]|date = 30 June 2004|access-date = 20 August 2017|archive-date = 31 August 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130831024640/http://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/story/2004/06/30/doubledouble040630.html|url-status = live}}</ref> most commonly associated with the [[Tim Hortons]] chain of coffee shops.<ref>Douglas Hunter, ''Double Double: How Tim Hortons Became a Canadian Way of Life, One Cup at a Time''. [[HarperCollins]], 2012. {{ISBN|978-1443406741}}.</ref>
* Canadianisms relating to alcohol:
** ''mickey'': a {{convert|375|mL|USfloz impfloz|abbr=on|lk=out}} bottle of hard liquor (informally called a [[pint]] in the Maritimes and the United States). In Newfoundland, this is almost exclusively referred to as a "[[hip flask|flask]]". In the United States, "mickey", or "[[Mickey Finn (drugs)|Mickey Finn]]", refers to a drink laced with drugs.
** ''two-six'', ''twenty-sixer'', ''twixer'': a {{convert|750|mL|USfloz impfloz|abbr=on}} bottle of hard liquor (called a quart in the Maritimes). The word ''handle'' is less common. Similarly, a {{convert|1.14|L|USfloz impfloz|abbr=on}} bottle of hard liquor is known as a ''forty'' and a {{convert|1.75|L|USfloz impfloz|abbr=on}} bottle is known as a ''sixty'' or ''half gallon'' in Nova Scotia.
** ''Texas mickey'' (especially in Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; more often a "Saskatchewan mickey" in western Canada): a {{convert|3|L|USfloz impfloz|0|abbr=on}} bottle of hard liquor. (Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.)
** ''two-four'': a case of 24 beers, also known as a ''case'' in Eastern Canada, or a ''flat'' in Western Canada (referencing that cans of beer are often sold in packages of six, with four packages to a flat box for shipping and stacking purposes).
** ''six-pack'', ''half-sack'', ''half-case'', or ''poverty-pack'': a case of six beers
* ''[[poutine]]'': a snack of french fries topped with cheese curds and hot gravy.
* There are also [[genericized trademark]]s used in Canada:
** ''[[cheezies]]'': [[cheese puffs]]. The name is a [[genericized trademark]] based on a brand of crunchy cheese snack sold in Canada.
** [[Kraft Dinner]] or "KD": for any packaged dry macaroni and cheese mix, even when it is not produced by Kraft.
* ''[[freezie]]'': A frozen flavoured sugar water snack common worldwide, but known by this name exclusively in Canada.
* ''dainty'': a fancy cookie, pastry, or square served at a social event (usually plural). Used in western Canada.
* ''[[Smarties]]'': a bean-sized, small candy-covered chocolate, similar to plain [[M&M's]]. This is also seen in British English. [[Smarties (tablet candy)|Smarties in the United States]] refer to small tart powdered disc sold in rolls; in Canada these tart candies are sold as "[[Rockets (wafer candy)|Rockets]]".

=== Informal speech ===
One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag ''[[eh]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nosowitz|first1=Dan|date=10 January 2017|title=Why Do Canadians Say 'Eh'?: The story behind Canada's most distinctive verbal tic|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-do-canadians-say-eh|access-date=12 January 2017|website=Atlas Obscura|archive-date=12 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112074324/http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-do-canadians-say-eh|url-status=live}}</ref> The only usage of ''eh'' exclusive to Canada, according to the ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', is for "ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed" as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike." In that case, ''eh?'' is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as ''mm'' or ''oh'' or ''okay''. This usage is also common in Queensland, Australia and New Zealand. Other uses of ''eh''&nbsp;– for instance, in place of ''huh?'' or ''what?'' meaning "please repeat or say again"&nbsp;– are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia. It is common in Northern/Central Ontario, the [[Maritimes]] and the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairie provinces]]. The word ''eh'' is used quite frequently in the North Central dialect, so a Canadian accent is often perceived in people from [[North Dakota]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Wisconsin]].

A ''rubber'' in the US and Canada is slang for a condom. In Canada, it sometimes means an [[eraser]] (as in the United Kingdom and Ireland).

The word ''bum'' can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or to a homeless person (as in the US). The "buttocks" sense does not have the indecent character it retains in British use, as it and "butt" are commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as ''[[buttocks|arse]]'' (commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or ''[[buttocks|ass]]'', or ''mitiss'' (used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword). Older Canadians may see "bum" as more polite than "butt", which before the 1980s was often considered rude.

Similarly the word ''pissed'' can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being angry (as in the US), though anger is more often said as ''pissed off'', while ''piss drunk'' or ''pissed up'' is said to describe inebriation (though ''piss drunk'' is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states).

[[File:Curtiss JN-4 CAN.jpg|thumb|right|A Canadian-built Curtiss JN-4C "Canuck" training biplane of 1918, with a differing vertical tail to the original US version]]
The term ''Canuck'' simply means ''Canadian'' in its [[demonym]]ic form, and, as a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory. (In the 19th century and early 20th century it tended to refer to French-Canadians.) The only Canadian-built version of the popular World War I-era American [[Curtiss JN-4]] ''Jenny'' training biplane aircraft, the JN-4C, 1,260 of which were built, got the "Canuck" nickname; so did another aircraft, the Fleet Model 80, built from the mid-1940s until the late 1950s. The nickname [[Janey Canuck]] was used by Anglophone women's rights writer [[Emily Murphy]] in the 1920s and the ''[[Johnny Canuck]]'' comic book character of the 1940s. Throughout the 1970s, Canada's winning World Cup men's downhill ski team was called the "[[Crazy Canucks]]" for their fearlessness on the slopes.<ref>{{cite web
| url        = http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/sports/skiing/the-crazy-canucks-canadas-skiing-heroes/topic---the-crazy-canucks-canadas-skiing-heroes.html
| title        = The Crazy Canucks: Canada's Skiing Heroes
| publisher        = Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
| access-date        = 25 September 2012
| archive-date        = 29 December 2012
| archive-url        = https://web.archive.org/web/20121229141618/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/sports/skiing/the-crazy-canucks-canadas-skiing-heroes/topic---the-crazy-canucks-canadas-skiing-heroes.html
| url-status        = dead 
}}</ref> It is also the name of the [[Vancouver Canucks]], the [[National Hockey League]] team of [[Vancouver]], British Columbia.

The term ''[[hoser]]'', popularized by [[Bob & Doug McKenzie]], typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male and is a euphemism for "loser" coming from the earlier days of hockey played on an outdoor rink and the losing team would have to hose down the ice after the game so it froze smooth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/51399/where-does-word-hoser-come|title=Where Does the Word 'Hoser' Come From?|date=2016-07-01|website=Mental Floss |first1=Sean |last1=Hutchinson |language=en|access-date=2020-02-03|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404215149/https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/51399/where-does-word-hoser-come|url-status=live}}</ref>

A ''Newf'' or ''Newfie'' is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory. In Newfoundland, the term ''Mainlander'' refers to any Canadian (sometimes American, occasionally Labradorian) not from the [[Newfoundland (island)|island of Newfoundland]]. ''Mainlander'' is also occasionally used derogatorily.

In the Maritimes, a ''Caper'' or "Cape Bretoner" is someone from [[Cape Breton Island]], a ''Bluenoser'' is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent or as a general term for a Nova Scotian (including Cape Bretoners), while an ''Islander'' is someone from [[Prince Edward Island]] (the same term is used in [[British Columbia]] for people from [[Vancouver Island]], or the numerous islands along it). A ''Haligonian'' refers to someone from the city of [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]].

Cape Bretoners and Newfies (from Newfoundland and Labrador) often have similar slang. "Barmp" is often used as the sound a car horn makes, example: "He cut me off so I barmped the horn at him". When saying "B'y", while sounds like the traditional farewell, it is a syncopated shortening of the word "boy", referring to a person, example: "How's it goin, b'y?". Another slang that is commonly used is "doohickey" which means an object, example: "Pass me that doohickey over there". When an individual uses the word "biffed", they mean that they threw something. Example: "I got frustrated so I biffed it across the room".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Da Mudder Tung|last=Glen|first=Gray|publisher=Microtext Publishing|year=2014|pages=6, 7, 17}}</ref>

=== Survey and research methodology ===

Canadian English dialectology examines Canadian English through the use of written surveys due to the vastness of the country and the difficulties of conducting face-to-face interviews on a nationwide level. The historical overview of written surveys in Canadian-English dialectology includes Avis's study of speech differences among the Ontario-United States borders through the use of questionnaires. Another example is the Survey of Canadian English directed by Scargill.<ref name="Labov, Ash 2006"/> A more recent example would be Nylvek's survey of Saskatchewan English and Chambers' trans-Canada dialect questionnaires.

== Attitudes ==
An attitude study in the late 1970s revealed a positive attitude toward Canadian linguistic features. Features include front vowel merger before/r/, low-back vowel merger, Canadian Raising, and Canadian lexical items. Still, the sample group in British Columbia showed a preference for UK and US English.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warkentyne |first=H. J. |date=1983 |title=Attitudes and Language Behaviour |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/attitudes-and-language-behaviour/3E80264D2EE893489DAA8EF3C7CDE853 |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue canadienne de linguistique |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=71–76 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100010069 |s2cid=149121191|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This attitude sees a change years later. A survey about attitudes towards CE was conducted with a diverse sample group in Vancouver, BC, in 2009. Among 429 Vancouverites, 81.1% believe there is a Canadian way of speaking English, 72.9% can tell CanE speakers from American English speakers, 69.1% consider CanE a part of their Canadian identity, and 74.1% think CanE should be taught in schools. Due to the unavailability of free and easy-to-access CanE dictionaries, many Canadian opt for other non-Canadian English dictionaries today.<ref name="Dillinger" /> Historically, American, British, and Irish texts are used in Canadian schools for the most part; even though Canadian reference work was written and became available in the 1960s, they were never preferred as teaching material.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Viola Elizabeth Parvin |title=Authorization of Textbooks for the Schools of Ontario 1846–1950 |url=https://utorontopress.com/9781487580988/authorization-of-textbooks-for-the-schools-of-ontario-1846-and-x20131950 |access-date=2023-04-11 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |language=en-CA |isbn=9781487580988}}</ref>

A preference change can be seen at the end of higher education in Canada. At the University of Toronto's Graduate English department, "Canadian English" and a "consistent spelling" are officially "the standard for all Ph.D. dissertations," with the ''Canadian Oxford English Dictionary'' as the official guideline. However, there is no mention of which grammar guide was to be followed because there was never a solid standard developed for spelling and grammar.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pratt |first=T. K. |url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/veaw.g11.04pra |title=The hobgoblin of Canadian English spelling |date=1993-11-04 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-4869-5 |editor-last=Clarke |editor-first=Sandra |series=Varieties of English Around the World |language=en}}</ref>

In 2011, just under 21.5&nbsp;million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language.<ref name="pop1">{{cite web
 |author       = Don J. DeVoretz
 |title        = Canada's Secret Province: 2.8 Million Canadians Abroad
 |url          = http://www.asiapacific.ca/research-report/canadas-secret-province-28-million-canadians-abroad
 |publisher    = Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada
 |year         = 2011
 |access-date   = 23 September 2013
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130927083447/http://www.asiapacific.ca/research-report/canadas-secret-province-28-million-canadians-abroad
 |archive-date = 27 September 2013
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref> English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English.<ref name="Navigator" /> While English is not the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% of the Québécois can speak English.<ref>{{Cite web
 |url          = http://www.spl.gouv.qc.ca/documentation/rapportssondagesstatistiques/dynamiquedeslangues/tableaux
 |title        = Dynamique des langues en quelques chiffres : Tableaux – Secrétariat à la politique linguistique
 |website      = spl.gouv.qc.ca
 |language     = fr
 |access-date  = 5 February 2017
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161207100029/http://www.spl.gouv.qc.ca/documentation/rapportssondagesstatistiques/dynamiquedeslangues/tableaux//
 |archive-date = 7 December 2016
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref> Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively.<ref>Marmen, Louise and Corbeil, Jean-Pierre, "New Canadian Perspectives, Languages in Canada 2001 Census," Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication, Statistics Canada Cat. No. Ch3-2/8-2004, (Canadian Heritage, 2004), pg. 60.</ref> Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.{{refn|group="nb"|18,858,908 Canadians identify their mother tongue as English. 599,230 Québécois identify their mother tongue as English and of that 309,885 live in Montreal.<ref name="Navigator">{{cite web
 |url          = http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/map-carte/index-eng.cfm
 |title        = Census Data Navigator
 |website      = 12.statcan.ca
 |access-date  = 20 August 2017
 |archive-date = 15 February 2020
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20200215021534/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/map-carte/index-eng.cfm
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref>}}

A study conducted in 2002 inquired Canadians from Ontario and Alberta about the "pleasantness" and "correctness" of different varieties of Canadian English based on province. Albertans and Ontarians all seem to rate their English and BC English in the top three. However, both hold a low opinion of Quebec English. Unlike the assumption that Toronto or Ontario English would be the most prestigious considering these regions are the most economically robust, BC had the best public opinion regarding pleasantness and correctness among the participants.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McKinnie |first1=Meghan |chapter=A Perceptual Dialectology of Anglophone Canada from the Perspective of Young Albertans and Ontarians |date=2002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/z.hpd2.20mck |title=Handbook of Perceptual Dialectology |pages=279–296 |access-date=2023-04-11 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |last2=Dailey-O'Cain |first2=Jennifer|doi=10.1075/z.hpd2.20mck |isbn=978-90-272-2185-8 }}</ref>

Jaan Lilles argues in an essay for ''English Today'' that there is no variety of "Canadian English." According to Lilles, Canadian English is simply not a "useful fiction".<ref name="Lilles" /> He goes on to argue that too often supposedly unique features of Canadian speakers, such as certain lexical terms such as ''muskeg'' are artificially exaggerated to distinguish Canadian speech primarily from that found in the United States.<ref name="Lilles">{{cite journal
| last1   = Lilles
| first1  = Jaan
| title   = The myth of Canadian English
| journal = English Today
| date    = April 2000
| volume  = 16
| issue   = 2
| pages   = 3–9
| doi     = 10.1017/S0266078400011548
| s2cid = 145665089
}}</ref> Lilles was heavily critiqued in the next issue of ''English Today'' by lexicographer Fraser Sutherland and others. According to Stefan Dollinger, Lilles' paper "is not a paper based on any data or other new information but more of a pamphlet – so much so that it should not have been published without a public critique".<ref name=creating>{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |title=Creating Canadian English: the Professor, the Mountaineer, and a National Variety of English |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2019 |pages=231}}</ref> He continues, "The paper is insightful for different reasons: it is a powerful testimony of personal anecdote and opinion [...]. As an opinion piece, it offers a good debating case." As a linguistic account, however, it "essentializes a prior state, before Canada was an independent political entity."<ref name=creating/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Canada|Language}}
{{Div col}}
* [[Bibliography of Canada#Canadian style guides]]
* [[List of Canadian English dictionaries]]
* [[Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2|Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition]]
* [[Bilingual education by country or region]]
* [[Bilingual education]]
* [[American and British English spelling differences]]
* [[Bungi creole]]
* [[Canadian Gaelic]]
* [[Franglais]]
* [[Regional accents of English]]
* [[Canadian Language Museum]]
* [[Commonwealth English]]{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| last      = Adams
| first      = Rob Colter
| year      = 2005
| title      = Grammar to go: the portable A-Zed guide to Canadian usage
| url      = https://books.google.com/books?id=3coumHE2n90C&pg=PP1
| publisher      = House of Anansi Press
| isbn      = 978-0-88784-723-3
| ref      = none
| access-date      = 11 April 2023
| archive-date      = 11 April 2023
| archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040916/https://books.google.com/books?id=3coumHE2n90C&pg=PP1
| url-status      = live
}}
* {{cite book
| url      = https://books.google.com/books?id=uW2rM_6I3gMC&pg=PA242
| title      = The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis
| first      = Charles
| last      = Boberg
| publisher      = Cambridge University Press
| year      = 2010
| isbn      = 978-0-511-78981-6
| access-date      = 11 April 2023
| archive-date      = 11 April 2023
| archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411040932/https://books.google.com/books?id=uW2rM_6I3gMC&pg=PA242
| url-status      = live
}}
* Barber, Katherine, editor (2004). ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-541816-6}}.
* Barber, Katherine. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20071028045359/http://www.randomhouse.ca/readmag/volume6issue1/pdfs/excerptBookOfLists.pdf 11 Favourite Regionalisms Within Canada]", in David Vallechinsky and Amy Wallace (2005). ''The Book of Lists'', Canadian Edition. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0-676-97720-2}}.
* Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: Renewing the study of lexical variation in North American English." ''American Speech'' 80/1. [http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/1/22 Dukejournals.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726005738/http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/1/22 |date=26 July 2011 }}
* Boberg, Charles, ''[http://groups.chass.utoronto.ca/canengglobal/abstracts/charles_boberg.pdf Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011045636/http://groups.chass.utoronto.ca/canengglobal/abstracts/charles_boberg.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }}'', McGill University.
* Courtney, Rosemary, and others., senior editors (1998). ''The Gage Canadian Dictionary'', second edition. Toronto: Gage Learning Corp. {{ISBN|0-7715-7399-5}}.
* Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', 2nd ed., p. xi.
* Clark, Joe (2008). ''[http://en-ca.org/ Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910184305/http://en-ca.org/ |date=10 September 2008 }}'' (e-book). {{ISBN|978-0-9809525-0-6}}.
* {{cite book
 |last         = Halford
 |first        = Brigitte K
 |year         = 1996
 |title        = Talk units: the structure of spoken Canadian English
 |url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=SBOBA7TOPj4C&pg=PP1
 |publisher    = Tübingen Narr
 |isbn         = 978-3-8233-4577-0
 |access-date  = 11 April 2023
 |archive-date = 11 April 2023
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411041442/https://books.google.com/books?id=SBOBA7TOPj4C&pg=PP1
 |url-status   = live
}}
* {{Cite book
 |last1           = Labov
 |first1          = William
 |last2           = Ash
 |first2          = Sharon
 |last3           = Boberg
 |first3          = Charles
 |name-list-style = amp
 |year            = 2006
 |title           = The Atlas of North American English
 |publisher       = Mouton de Gruyter
 |url             = https://books.google.com/books?id=qa4-dFqi6iMC&pg=PR5
 |isbn            = 978-3-11-016746-7
 |access-date     = 11 April 2023
 |archive-date    = 11 April 2023
 |archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411041455/https://books.google.com/books?id=qa4-dFqi6iMC&pg=PR5
 |url-status      = live
}}
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-62181-X}}.
* {{Cite book
 |editor       = Walt Wolfram and Ben Ward
 |year         = 2006
 |title        = American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast
 |url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=tYahfvYV3pUC&pg=PR1
 |pages        = 140, 234–236
 |publisher    = Blackwell Publishing
 |isbn         = 978-1-4051-2108-8
 |access-date  = 11 April 2023
 |archive-date = 11 April 2023
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20230411041446/https://books.google.com/books?id=tYahfvYV3pUC&pg=PR1
 |url-status   = live
}}
* Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, ''Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction'', 3rd ed., pp.&nbsp;67–68.
* Canadian English: [[Editors' Association of Canada]], [http://www.editors.ca/resources/eac_publications/ece.html ''Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228065028/http://www.editors.ca/resources/eac_publications/ece.html |date=28 December 2016 }}, 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2000).
* Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, ''Guide to Canadian English Usage'' (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001).
* Hamilton, Sandra A. M. (1997) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20121006144027/http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/en/handle/10393/10045 Canadianisms and their treatment in dictionaries]'', Thesis (M.A.), University of Ottawa, {{ISBN|978-0-612-19968-2}}
* Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides:
** J.A. McFarlane and Warren Clements, ''The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage'', 9th ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998).
** The Canadian Press, [https://web.archive.org/web/20020104183839/http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&maintable=cp ''The Canadian Press Stylebook'', 13th ed.] and its quick-reference companion [https://web.archive.org/web/20020203100855/http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&maintable=caps ''CP Caps and Spelling'', 16th ed.] (both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004).
* Barber, Katherine, editor (2004). ''[[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]]'', second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-541816-6}}.
* Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', 2nd ed., p. xi.
* Clarke, Sandra, Ford Elms, and Amani Youssef (1995). "The third dialect of English: Some Canadian evidence", in ''Language Variation and Change'', 7:209–228.
Dollinger, Stefan (2015). [https://www.academia.edu/18162995/The_Written_Questionnaire_in_Social_Dialectology_History_Theory_Practice_Dec._2015_ The Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518161525/https://www.academia.edu/18162995/The_Written_Questionnaire_in_Social_Dialectology_History_Theory_Practice_Dec._2015_ |date=18 May 2016 }} Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. The book's examples are exclusive taken from Canadian English and represent one of the more extensive collections of variables for Canadian English.
* Dollinger, Stefan (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/4006034/New-Dialect_Formation_in_Canada_Evidence_from_the_English_Modal_Auxiliaries New-Dialect Formation in Canada: Evidence from the English Modal Auxiliaries 1776–1849] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404213645/https://www.academia.edu/4006034/New-Dialect_Formation_in_Canada_Evidence_from_the_English_Modal_Auxiliaries |date=4 April 2023 }}. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins.
* Dollinger, Stefan, Laurel J. Brinton and Margery Fee (2013). [http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadiansims on Historical Principles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213014/http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ |date=23 September 2015 }}. 1st Edition. Ed. by Walter S. Avis et al. (1967).
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-62181-X}}.
* {{cite book
| editor    = Walt Wolfram and Ben Ward| year      = 2006
| title     = American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast
| pages     = 140, 234–236
| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
| isbn      = 978-1-4051-2108-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Tse
|first=Holman
|year=2018
|title=Beyond the Monolingual Core and out into the Wild: A Variationist Study of Early Bilingualism and Sound Change in Toronto Heritage Cantonese
|publisher=University of Pittsburgh
}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary-inline|Canadian English}}
* [https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/ Termium Plus]: the [[Government of Canada]] terminology and linguistic databank
* [https://www.cbc.ca/news2/indepth/words/index.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe & Wonder]
* [http://www.luther.ca/~dave7cnv/cdnspelling/cdnspelling.html Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling] – comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110314052240/http://www.soundcomparisons.com/Eng/Direct/Englishes/SglLgCanadianStandard.htm 'Hover & Hear' pronunciations in a standard Canadian accent], and compare side by side with other English accents from around the world.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040503005630/http://www.oup.com/ca/genref/dictionaries/ Canadian Oxford Dictionaries] (Oxford University Press&nbsp;– sales only)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209003712/http://www.dico.uottawa.ca/theses/hamilton/hamilton2.htm Lexical, grammatical, orthographic and phonetic Canadianisms]
* [http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/CanadianEnglish.html Varieties of English: Canadian English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324114523/http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/CanadianEnglish.html |date=24 March 2013 }} from the University of Arizona
* [http://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/ Dictionary of Newfoundland English]
* [http://www.dchp.ca/dchp1/  Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles Online]
* [http://www.dchp.ca/dchp2 Second Edition of A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles]

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[[Category:Canadian English| ]]
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