Editing Canadian nationalism

{{Short description|none}}
{{Distinguish|Canadianism}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=April 2025}}
[[File:Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg|thumb|[[Flag of Canada]]]]
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'''Canadian nationalism''' ({{langx|fr|Nationalisme canadien}}) has been a significant political force since the 19th century and has typically manifested itself as seeking to advance Canada's independence from the influence of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]].{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=69}} Since the 1960s, most proponents of Canadian nationalism have advocated a form of [[civic nationalism]] that seeks to equalize citizenship for [[Multiculturalism in Canada|Canada's multicultural society]]. In particular, proponents seek to unite English-speaking Canadians with the {{lang|fr|[[Quebec|Québécois]]}} and other [[Francophone Canadians|French-speaking Canadians]], who historically faced cultural and economic discrimination and assimilationist pressure from the English Canadian–dominated federal government.<ref>Recent social trends in Canada, 1960–2000. Pp. 415.</ref> Canadian nationalism became an important issue during the [[1988 Canadian federal election|1988 federal election]] that focused on the then proposed [[Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement]], which Canadian nationalists opposed on the basis that it would in their view lead to the inevitable assimilation and domination of Canada by the United States.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=69}} During the [[1995 Quebec referendum]] to determine whether Quebec would become a [[sovereign state]] or remain in Canada, Canadian nationalists and federalists supported the "no" side while [[Quebec nationalist]]s supported the "yes" side, resulting in a razor-thin majority in favour of the "no" side.

Canadian nationalism in English-speaking Canada opts for a certain level of sovereignty for Canada vis-à-vis other sovereign states, while remaining within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (former [[British Empire]]). The Canadian Tories have historically exemplified this formulation of nationalism in their opposition to free trade with the United States, stemming from a fear of economic and cultural assimilation. On the other hand, French Canadian nationalism prioritizes the preservation of the {{lang|fr|Québécois}} nation. This French-Canadian nationalism has existed ever since the [[Conquest of New France (1758–1760)|conquest of New France]] in the mid-eighteenth century. Although radical French-speaking reformers in the [[Lower Canada Rebellion]] of 1837 supported the creation of a new {{lang|fr|Québécois}} republic, a more accurate portrait of French-Canadian nationalism is illustrated by such figures as [[Henri Bourassa]] during the first half of the twentieth century. Bourassa advocated for a nation less reliant on Great Britain whether politically, economically or militarily. After Bourassa and during the [[Quiet Revolution]], French-Canadian nationalism in Quebec evolved into [[Quebec nationalism]]. Quebec nationalists include [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereigntists]], who believe Quebec should secede from Canada, and [[Autonomism in Quebec|autonomists]], who believe Quebec should hold extensive self-governing power within Canada.

== History ==
The goal of all economic and political nationalists has been the creation and then maintenance of Canadian sovereignty. During Canada's colonial past there were various movements in both [[Upper Canada]] (present day [[Ontario]]) and [[Lower Canada]] (present day [[Quebec]]) to achieve independence from the [[British Empire]]. These culminated in the failed [[Rebellions of 1837]]. These movements had [[Republicanism|republican]] and pro-American tendencies and many of the rebels fled to the United States following the failure of the rebellion. Afterwards Canadian patriots began focusing on self-government and political reform within the British Empire. This was a cause championed by early Liberals such as the [[Reform Party (pre-Confederation)|Reform Party]] and the [[Clear Grits]], while Canada's early Conservatives, supported by loyalist institutions and big business, supported stronger links to Britain. Following the achievement of constitutional independence in 1867 (Confederation) both of Canada's main parties followed separate nationalistic themes. The early [[Liberal Party of Canada]] generally favoured greater diplomatic and military independence from the British Empire while the early [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party of Canada]] fought for economic independence from the United States.

=== Free trade with the United States ===
{{See also|Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement}}
[[File:President Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Mexican President Carlos Salinas participate in the... - NARA - 186460.jpg|thumb|Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) in 1992]]
Starting before Confederation in 1867, the debate between [[free trade]] and [[protectionism]] was a defining issue in Canadian politics. Nationalists, along with pro-British [[Loyalism|loyalists]], were opposed to the idea of free trade or reciprocity for fear of having to compete with American industry and losing sovereignty to the United States. This issue dominated Canadian politics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the Tories taking a populist, anti-free trade stance. Conservative leader [[John A. Macdonald]] advocated an agenda of [[economic nationalism]], known as the [[National Policy]]. This was very popular in the industrialized Canadian east. While the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] took a more [[classical liberal]] approach and supported the idea of an "open market" with the United States, something feared in eastern Canada but popular with farmers in western Canada.<ref>Bélanger, Claude (April 2005). [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/federal/npolicy.htm "The National Policy and Canadian Federalism"]. Studies on the Canadian Constitution and Canadian Federalism. Marianopolis College.</ref> The National Policy also included plans to expand Canadian territory into the western prairies and populate the west with immigrants.

In each "free trade election", the Liberals were defeated, forcing them to give up on the idea. The issue was revisited in the 1980s by [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]. Mulroney reversed his party's [[protectionist]] tradition, and, after claiming to be against free trade during his [[Progressive Conservative leadership convention, 1983|leadership campaign in 1983]], went forward with negotiations for a free trade agreement with the United States. His government believed that this would cure Canada's ills and unemployment, which had been caused by a growing [[Government budget deficit|deficit]] and a terrible economic [[recession]] during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The agreement was drawn up in 1987 and an [[1988 Canadian federal election|election was held]] on the issue in 1988. The Liberals, in a reversal of their traditional role, campaigned against free trade under former Prime Minister [[John Turner]]. The Tories won the election with a large majority, partially due to Mulroney's support in Quebec among Quebec nationalists to whom he promised "distinct society" status for their province.

After the [[1988 Canadian federal election|election of 1988]], opponents of free trade pointed to the fact that the PC Party of Brian Mulroney received a majority of seats in parliament with only 43% of the vote while together the Liberal Party and [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]] both of whom opposed the agreement received 51% of the vote, showing opposition from a clear majority of the population.

=== World wars ===
{{See also|Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years}}
[[File:Keep All Canadians Busy - Victory bonds poster.jpg|thumb|upright|"Keep All Canadians Busy Buy 1918 Victory Bonds"]]
The impact of World War I on the evolution of [[Canadian identity|Canada's identity]] is debated by historians. While there is a consensus that on the eve of the war, most [[English Canadian|English-speaking Canadians]] had a hybrid imperial-national identity, the war's effects on Canada's emergence as a nation are complex. The Canadian media often refers to the First World War and, in particular, the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], as marking "the birth of a nation."<ref>Nersessian, Mary (April 9, 2007). [http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070402/vimy_90years_070402 Vimy battle marks birth of Canadian nationalism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215182932/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070402/vimy_90years_070402 |date=February 15, 2009 }}. CTV.ca</ref> Some historians consider the First World War to be Canada's "war of independence."<ref name = Cook>Cook, Tim (2008). ''Shock troops: Canadians fighting the Great War, 1917–1918.''  Toronto: Viking.</ref> They argue that the war decreased the extent to which Canadians identified with the British Empire and intensified their sense of being Canadians first and British subjects second.

This sense was expressed during the [[Chanak crisis]] when, for the first time, the Canadian government stated that a decision by the British government to go to war would not automatically entail Canadian participation.

Other historians robustly dispute the view that World War I undermined the hybrid imperial-national identity of English-speaking Canada. Phillip Buckner states that: "The First World War shook but did not destroy this Britannic vision of Canada. It is a [[myth]] that Canadians emerged from the war alienated from, and disillusioned with, the imperial connection." He argues that most English-speaking Canadians "continued to believe that Canada was, and should continue to be, a '[[British Empire|British]]' nation and that it should cooperate with the other members of the British family in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]]."<ref>Buckner, Philip, ed. (2006). ''Canada and the British World: Culture, Migration, and Identity.'' p. 1. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.</ref> Nevertheless, there are two possible mechanisms whereby World War I may have intensified Canadian nationalism: 1) Pride in Canada's accomplishments on the battlefield demonstrably promoted Canadian patriotism, and 2) the war distanced Canada from Britain in that Canadians reacted to the sheer slaughter on the Western Front by adopting an increasingly anti-British attitude.<ref name = Cook/>

Still, Governor General [[John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir|The Lord Tweedsmuir]] raised the ire of Canadian [[Imperialism|imperialists]] when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian's first loyalty is not to the British [[Commonwealth of Nations]], but to [[Canada]] and [[Monarchy of Canada|Canada's King]]."<ref>Smith, Janet Adam; ''John Buchanan, a Biography; London, 1965; p. 423</ref> The ''[[Montreal Gazette]]'' dubbed the statement "disloyal."<ref name="Time">{{Cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,937945,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513184211/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,937945,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 13, 2007|title=''Time'': Roya Visit; October 21, 1957}}</ref>

=== Québécois nationalism ===
{{Main|Quebec nationalism}}
[[File:St-Jean!042.jpg|thumb|[[Fête Nationale du Québec]] (or Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day) celebrated here in June 2006]]

Another early source of pan-Canadian nationalism came from Quebec in the early 20th century. [[Henri Bourassa]], Mayor of [[Montebello, Quebec|Montebello]] and one-time Liberal Member of Parliament created the [[Ligue nationaliste canadienne|Canadian Nationalist League]] (Ligue nationaliste canadienne) supporting an independent role for Canada in foreign affairs and opposed Canadian dependence on either Britain or the United States.<ref>Levitt, Joseph. [https://web.archive.org/web/20040518095239/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000912 Bourassa, Henri]. ''The Canadian Encyclopedia.'' Historica.ca.</ref> A prominent supporter of a complete "economic autonomy" of the [[Economy of Canada|Canadian economy]], Bourassa was instrumental in defeating [[Wilfrid Laurier]] in the [[1911 Canadian federal election|federal election of 1911]] over the issue of a [[Canadian Navy]] under the command of the [[British Admiralty]], something he furiously opposed. In so doing, he aided the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]] of [[Robert Borden]] in that election, a party with strong pro-imperialist sympathies.<ref>[[Neatby, H. Blair]] (1973). [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8104462 ''Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527045318/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8104462 |date=2012-05-27 }} Richard T. Clippingdale., ed. McClelland and Steward Limited.</ref>

In the [[1917 Canadian general election|federal election of 1917]] he was also instrumental in opposing the Borden government's plan for conscription and as a result assisted the [[Laurier Liberals]] in Quebec. His vision of a unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists. Alternatively, his [[French Canadian]] nationalism and support for maintaining French Canadian culture would inspire [[Quebec nationalism|Quebec nationalists]], many of whom were supporters of the [[Quebec sovereignty movement]].

This Quebec sovereignty movement gained traction through the [[Quiet Revolution]] and burst on the Canadian scene in the latter half of the twentieth century. In 1970, radical sovereigntists under the [[Front de libération du Québec|FLQ]] sparked the [[October Crisis]] when they kidnapped the provincial Labour Minister [[Pierre Laporte]] and British diplomat [[James Cross]] in an effort to further the cause of Quebec sovereignty. Although this crisis soon abated, the sovereignty movement continued. Quebec held two referendums about whether the province should separate from the rest of Canada; the Canadian federalists defeated the Québécois separatists in the [[1980 Quebec referendum]] by a margin of 59.56% to 40.44% and narrowly won again in the [[1995 Quebec referendum]] by a margin of 50.58% to 49.42%. This second referendum marked the high water mark of the Quebec sovereignty movement and the broader Québécois nationalism continued to decline in the early twenty-first century.

Under the [[Coalition Avenir Québec]] government, Québécois nationalism has risen in a new form. In 2019, the provincial government passed ''Act respecting the laicity of the State''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=- Act respecting the laicity of the State |url=https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/document/cs/L-0.3 |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca}}</ref> It prohibits the wearing of religious symbols by certain public employees in positions of authority and [[Grandfather clause|grandfathers]] in those who were already in office when the bill was introduced. In 2022, the provincial government introduced ''An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Quebec'' which would greatly expand the requirement to speak French in many public and private settings.<ref>{{Citation |last=Barreto |first=Amílcar Antonio |title=The Official Language Act of 1991 |date=2020-02-04 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5744/florida/9781683401131.003.0006 |work=The Politics of Language in Puerto Rico |pages=69–82 |publisher=University Press of Florida |doi=10.5744/florida/9781683401131.003.0006 |isbn=9781683401131 |access-date=2022-05-20|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The government has justified both of these measures, which are strongly opposed in the English-speaking provinces, as necessary to preserve the secularism and the French language that are central to Québécois nationalism.

=== Nationalist politics ===
Modern attempts at forming a popular Canadian nationalist party have failed, a phenomenon decried by Canadian philosopher [[George Grant (philosopher)|George Grant]] in his seminal 1965 ''[[Lament for a Nation]]''. Grant's thesis is that Prime Minister Diefenbaker's defeat in 1963 was the last gasp of Canadian nationalism and that the Canadian nation has succumbed to the continentalism of the United States.

The [[National Party of Canada]] was the most successful of recent attempts to revive Canadian nationalism in an electoral party. Led by former publisher [[Mel Hurtig]] the Nationals received more than 183,000 votes or 1.38% of the popular vote in the [[1993 Canadian federal election|1993 election]]. Infighting however led to the party's demise shortly afterwards. This was followed by the formation of the [[Canadian Action Party]] in 1997. Created by a former Liberal Minister of Defence, [[Paul Hellyer]], the CAP has failed to attract significant attention from the electorate since that time. An [[organic farmer]] and nationalist activist from [[Saskatchewan]] named [[David Orchard]] attempted to bring a nationalist agenda to the forefront of the former [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]]. In spite of attracting thousands of new members to a declining party he was unsuccessful in taking over the leadership and preventing the merger with the former [[Canadian Alliance]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pgib.ca/2cards/pages/english/content/history/PCRace.htm |title=2cards.ca - Two Parties - One Vision |access-date=2015-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210233300/http://www.pgib.ca/2cards/pages/english/content/history/PCRace.htm |archive-date=2015-12-10 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/columnists/story.html?id=8bbb9f1c-30b3-43cd-a2fc-4e4e97494d27&p=2 |title=Orchard's strategic influence |access-date=2007-10-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604123851/http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/columnists/story.html?id=8bbb9f1c-30b3-43cd-a2fc-4e4e97494d27&p=2 |archive-date=2011-06-04 }}</ref>

Various activist/lobby groups such as the [[Council of Canadians]], along with other [[Progressivism|progressive]], [[environmentalist]] and [[Labor movement|labour]] groups have campaigned tirelessly against attempts to integrate the Canadian economy and harmonize government policies with that of the United States. They point to threats allegedly posed to Canada's environment, natural resources, social programs, the rights of Canadian workers and cultural institutions. These echo the concerns of a large segment of the Canadian population.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} The nationalist Council of Canadians took a role of leadership in protesting discussions on the [[Security and Prosperity Partnership]] and earlier talks between previous Canadian and US governments on "[[deep integration]]".

{{As of|2010}} concerns regarding national unity have ebbed to some degree and nationalist sentiment among the population overall has increased. Even in Quebec, long a hotbed of secessionist sentiment, a large majority has emerged that expresses pride and loyalty toward Canada as a whole. Canada has even been described as ''post-national'', a description that some critics have argued runs counter to current trends in Europe and the United States.<ref name="NP: Nationalism">{{cite news | title=Nationalism on rise, poll finds | date=March 8, 2010 |newspaper=National Post | url=https://www.historicacanada.ca/sites/default/files/PDF/press-coverage/nationalism_on_rise.pdf}}</ref> Prime Minister Trudeau, elected in 2015, has however espoused distinctly anti-nationalist sentiments during his tenure (or at least sentiments that are contrary to traditional nationalism).<ref>{{cite news | title=The dangers of Trudeau's 'postnational' Canada | author=Todd, Douglass | date=March 13, 2016 | url=https://vancouversun.com/news/staff-blogs/the-dangers-of-trudeaus-postnational-canada}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Nationalist movements could smother Justin Trudeau: Paul Wells |date=November 25, 2016 | newspaper=Toronto Star | url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2016/11/25/nationalist-movements-could-smother-justin-trudeau-paul-wells.html}}</ref> To the extent Canadians have embraced nationalism in recent years, it has been a more ''inclusive,'' [[civic nationalism]], as contrasted with the ''exclusive'' nationalism that has arisen recently in the US, UK, and some other Western nations.<ref name="NP: Nationalism"/>

== List of Canadian nationalist groups ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2025}}

=== Centre-left, left-wing and far-left groups ===
* [[Canadian Action Party]] (1997–2017), minor federal political party
* [[Committee for an Independent Canada]] (1970–1981), political advocacy organization<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/committee-for-an-independent-canada |title = Committee for an Independent Canada {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref>
* [[The Council of Canadians]] (1985–present), political advocacy organization
* [[Ginger Group]] (1924–1930s), informal group of left-wing members of parliament
* [[National Party of Canada]] (1993–1997), minor federal political party
* [[The Waffle]] (1969–1974), also known as the Movement for an Independent Socialist Canada, a far-left faction of the [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]] which was purged by federal party leader [[David Lewis (Canadian politician)|David Lewis]] in the 1970s
* [[National Party of Canada (1979)|National Party of Canada]], minor federal political party founded by former Waffle members

=== Centrist groups ===
* [[Canadian Future Party]] (2024–present), minor federal political party

=== Centre-right, right-wing and far-right groups ===
* [[Canada First]] (1868–{{circa}} 1896), political advocacy organization which was briefly a minor federal political party
* [[Canadian Party]] (1862–1872), political advocacy organization local to Manitoba
* [[People's Party of Canada]] (2018–present), minor federal political party
* [[Progressive Canadian Party]] (2004–2019), minor federal political party

=== Canadian government departments responsible for cultural promotion ===
* [[Department of Canadian Heritage]]
* [[Heritage Canada|Heritage Canada Foundation]]
* [[Canada Council for the Arts]]

==National pride==

Nearly nine out of ten individuals (87%) expressed a sense of pride in [[Canadian identity|identifying as Canadian]], with over half (61%) indicating they were very proud. The highest levels of pride were associated with [[History of Canada|Canadian history]] as a [[dominion]] of the British Empire (70%), the [[Canadian Armed Forces|armed forces]] (64%), the [[Healthcare in Canada|healthcare system]] (64%), and the [[Constitution of Canada|Canadian Constitution]] (63%). Conversely, pride was lowest concerning Canada’s global political influence, reported at 46%.<ref name="d680">{{cite web | title=Highlights | website=Statistics Canada | date=2015-10-01 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-652-x/2015005/hl-fs-eng.htm | access-date=2025-03-02}} Text was copied from this source, which is available under the [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/reference/copyright Statistics Canada Open Licence]</ref>

Outside of Quebec, pride in Canadian identity varied, ranging from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island. In Quebec, 70% of individuals conveyed feelings of pride or strong pride in their Canadian identity, although Quebec residents were consistently less inclined to express pride in particular Canadian accomplishments.<ref name="d680"/>

The sentiments of pride in being Canadian were most pronounced among seniors and women, although this pride did not necessarily translate to specific aspects of Canadian life, such as the healthcare system. First-generation and second-generation immigrants exhibited the highest levels of pride in both their Canadian identity and Canadian accomplishments.<ref name="d680"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Canada}}
* [[Canadian patriotic music]]
* [[Canadian Red Ensign]]
* [[Canadian cultural protectionism]]
* [[Canadianism]]
* [[Chinese Immigration Act of 1885]]
* [[Chinese head tax in Canada]]
* [[Chinese Immigration Act, 1923]]
* [[Immigration Watch Canada]]
* [[Multiculturalism in Canada]]
* [[Populism in Canada]]

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book|last=Motyl|first=Alexander J.|author-link=Alexander J. Motyl|title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Volume II|year=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0-12-227230-7}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book|last=Asselin|first=Olivar|title=A Quebec View of Canadian nationalism: An Essay by a dyed-in-the-wool French-Canadian on the Best Means of Ensuring the Greatness of the Canadian fatherland|url=https://archive.org/details/quebecviewofcana00asserich|publisher=Guertin Printing Company, Ltd.|location=Montreal|year=1909|page=[https://archive.org/details/quebecviewofcana00asserich/page/61 61]|author-link=Olivar Asselin}}
* {{cite book|last=Azzi|first=Stephen|title=Walter Gordon and the Rise of Canadian Nationalism|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=1999|page=300|isbn=0-7735-1840-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Bailey|first=Alfred Goldsworthy|title=Culture and Nationality: Essays|publisher=McClelland and Stewart|location=Toronto & Montreal|year=1972|page=224}}
* {{cite book|last=Bauhn|first=Per|title=Multiculturalism and Nationhood in Canada: The Cases of First Nations and Quebec|publisher=Lund University Press|location=Lund, Sweden|year=1995|page=102|author-link=Per Bauhn}}
* {{cite book|last=Berger|first=Carl|title=Imperialism and Nationalism, 1884–1914: A Conflict in Canadian Thought|publisher=Copp Clark|location=Toronto|year=1969|page=119}}
* {{cite book|last=Berton|first=Pierre|title=Why We Act like Canadians: A Personal Exploration of our National Character|publisher=McClelland and Stewart|location=Toronto|year=1982|page=[https://archive.org/details/whyweactlikecana0000bert_a5q7/page/113 113]|isbn=0-7710-1363-9|author-link=Pierre Berton|url=https://archive.org/details/whyweactlikecana0000bert_a5q7/page/113}}
* {{cite book|last=Boyd|first=John|title=The Future of Canada: Canadianism or Imperialism|url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_73222|publisher=Librairie Beauchemin Limited|location=Montreal|year=1919|page=[https://archive.org/details/cihm_73222/page/n117 106]|isbn=9780665732225 |author-link=John Boyd (Canadian politician)}}
* {{cite book|author1=Raymond Breton|author2=Jeffrey G. Reitz|author3=Victor F. Valentine|title=Cultural boundaries and the cohesion of Canada|publisher=Institut de recherches politiques|location=Montréal|year=1980|page=422}}
* {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Brian A.|title=Separatism|publisher=Echo Pub.|location=Dawson Creek|year=1976|page=200|isbn=0-920252-01-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Brunet|first=Michel|author-link=Michel Brunet (historian)|title=Canadians et Canadiens : études sur l'histoire et la pensée des deux Canadas|publisher=Fides|location=Montréal|year=1954|page=173|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Brunet|first=Michel|author-link=Michel Brunet (historian)|title=La Présence anglaise et les Canadiens : études sur l'histoire et la pensée des deux Canadas|publisher=Beauchemin|location=Montréal|year=1958|page=292|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Collins|first=Richard|title=Culture, Communication, and National Identity: The Case of Canadian Television|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecommunica0000coll|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto|year=1990|page=367|isbn=0-8020-2733-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Cook|first=Ramsay|title=Canada, Quebec, and the Uses of Nationalism|publisher=M&S|location=Toronto|year=1986|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadaquebecuses0000cook/page/294 294]|isbn=0-7710-2254-9|author-link=Ramsay Cook|url=https://archive.org/details/canadaquebecuses0000cook/page/294}}
* {{cite book|last=Cook|first=Ramsay|title=The Maple Leaf Forever. Essays on Nationalism and Politics in Canada|publisher=Macmillan of Canada|location=Toronto|year=1971|page=253}}
* {{cite book|last=Corse|first=Sarah M.|title=Nationalism and Literature: The Politics of Culture in Canada and the United States|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/nationalismliter0000cors/page/213 213]|isbn=978-0-521-57002-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismliter0000cors/page/213}}
* {{cite book|last=Couture|first=Claude|title=Paddling with the Current: Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Étienne Parent, Liberalism, and Nationalism in Canada|publisher=University of Alberta Press|location=Edmonton|year=1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/paddlingwithcurr0000cout/page/137 137]|isbn=0-88864-313-6|url=https://archive.org/details/paddlingwithcurr0000cout/page/137}}
* {{cite book|last=Crean|first=Susan|title=Two Nations: An essay on the Culture and Politics of Canada and Quebec in a World of American Preeminence|publisher=J. Lorimero|location=Toronto|year=1983|page=[https://archive.org/details/twonationsessayo0000crea/page/167 167]|isbn=0-88862-381-X|url=https://archive.org/details/twonationsessayo0000crea/page/167}}
* {{cite book|last=Doran|first=Charles F.|title=Being and Becoming Canada|publisher=Sage Periodicals Press|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|year=1995|page=236|isbn=0-8039-5884-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Foster|first=William Alexander|title=Canada First, or, Our New Nationality. An address by W.A. Foster|url=https://archive.org/details/canadafirstorour00fost|publisher=Adam, Stevenson & Co.|location=Toronto|year=1871|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadafirstorour00fost/page/36 36]}}
* {{cite book|last=Giroux|first=Maurice|title=Essai politique sur la crise des deux nations canadiennes; : la pyramide de Babel|url=https://archive.org/details/essaipolitiquesu0000giro|url-access=registration|publisher=Editions de Sainte-Marie|location=Montréal|year=1967|page=[https://archive.org/details/essaipolitiquesu0000giro/page/138 138]|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Grant|first=George|title=[[Lament for a Nation|Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism]]|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|location=Toronto & Montreal|year=1965|page=[https://archive.org/details/lamentfornationd0000gran_r9z2/page/97 97]|isbn=978-0-7735-3010-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Gwyn|first=Richard|title=Nationalism without walls : the unbearable lightness of being Canadian|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismwitho00gwyn|url-access=registration|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|location=Toronto|year=1995|page=[https://archive.org/details/nationalismwitho00gwyn/page/304 304]|isbn=0-7710-3717-1|author-link=Richard Gwyn (Canadian writer)}}
* {{cite book|last=Heisey|first=Alan|title=The Great Canadian Stampede, The rush to economic nationalism: right or wrong?|publisher=Griffin Press Limited|location=Toronto|year=1973|isbn=0-88760-062-X|author-link=Alan Milliken Heisey Sr.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/greatcanadiansta0000heis}}
* {{cite book|editor=Heron, Craig|title=Imperialism, Nationalism and Canada: Essays from the Marxist Institute of Toronto|publisher=New Hogtown Press|location=Toronto|year=1977|page=206|isbn=0-919940-05-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Lower|first=Arthur Reginald Marsden|title=History and Myth. Arthur Lower and the making of Canadian Nationalism|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|year=1975|page=339|isbn=0-7748-0035-6|author-link=Arthur Reginald Marsden Lower}}
* {{cite book|last=MacLaren|first=Roy|author-link=Roy MacLaren (politician)|title=Commissions High: Canada in London, 1870-1971|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=2006|page=567|isbn=978-0-7735-3036-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Madison|first=Gary Brent|title=Is there a Canadian philosophy? Reflections on the Canadian Identity|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|location=Ottawa|year=2000|page=218|isbn=0-7766-0514-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Maheux|first=Arthur|title=Problems of Canadian Unity|publisher=les Éditions des Bois-Francs|location=Québec|year=1944|page=186}}
* {{cite book|last=Manning|first=Erin|title=Ephemeral Territories: Representing Nation, Home, and Identity in Canada|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|year=2003|page=187|isbn=0-8166-3924-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Moore|first=William Henry|title=The Clash! A study in Nationalities|publisher=Dent & Sons|location=London|year=1918|page=[https://archive.org/details/clashstudyinnati00mooruoft/page/333 333]|url=https://archive.org/details/clashstudyinnati00mooruoft|author-link=William Henry Moore (politician)}}
* {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Raymond N.|title=Three Scales of Inequality: Perspectives on French-English Relations|url=https://archive.org/details/threescalesofine0000morr|url-access=registration|publisher=Longman Canada|location=Don Mills|year=1977|page=[https://archive.org/details/threescalesofine0000morr/page/300 300]|isbn=0-7747-3035-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Morton|first=William Lewis|title=The Canadian Identity|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|year=1961|page=125}}
* {{cite book|last=Nelles|first=Viv.|title=Nationalism or Local Control: Responses to George Woodcock|publisher=New Press|location=Toronto|year=1973|page=97}}
* {{cite book|author1=Paquet, Gilles|author2=Jean-Pierre Wallot|title=Nouvelle-France/Québec/Canadas: A World of Limited Identities|publisher=Faculty of Administration, University of Ottawa|location=Ottawa|year=1983|page=73}}
* {{cite book|last=Radwanski|first=George|title=The Will of a Nation: Awakening the Canadian Spirit|publisher=Stoddart|location=Toronto|year=1992|page=[https://archive.org/details/willofnationawak0000radw/page/195 195]|isbn=0-7737-2637-3|author-link=George Radwanski|url=https://archive.org/details/willofnationawak0000radw/page/195}}
* {{cite book|last=Resnick|first=Philip|title=The European Roots of Canadian Identity|publisher=Broadview Press|year=2005|page=125|isbn=1-55111-705-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Resnick|first=Philip|title=The Land of Cain: Class and Nationalism in English Canada, 1945-1975|publisher=New Star Books|location=Vancouver|year=1977|page=[https://archive.org/details/landofcain0000unse/page/297 297]|isbn=0-919888-68-2|url=https://archive.org/details/landofcain0000unse/page/297}}
* {{cite book|last=Rotstein|first=Abraham|title=Independence: The Canadian Challenge|url=https://archive.org/details/independencecana0000rots|url-access=registration|publisher=The Committee for an Independent Canada|location=Toronto|year=1972|page=[https://archive.org/details/independencecana0000rots/page/279 279]|isbn=9780771077463 }}
* {{cite book|last=Rotstein|first=Abraham|title=The Precarious Homestead; Essays on Economics, Technology and Nationalism|url=https://archive.org/details/precarioushomest0000rots|url-access=registration|publisher=New Press|location=Toronto|year=1973|page=[https://archive.org/details/precarioushomest0000rots/page/331 331]|isbn=0-88770-710-6}}
* {{cite book|editor=Russell, Peter|editor-link=Peter H. Russell|title=Nationalism in Canada, by the University League for Social Reform|publisher=McGraw-Hill Company of Canada|location=Toronto|year=1966|page=377}}
* {{cite book|last=Saint-Laurent|first=Louis|title=National unity of Canada: First Annual Kenneth E. Norris Memorial Lecture, November 9, 1961. An address by The Right Honourable Louis S. St-Laurent|publisher=Association of Alumni, Sir George Williams University|year=1961|page=24|author-link=Louis Saint-Laurent}}
* {{cite book|last=Samuels|first=H. Raymond II|title=National Identity in Canada and Cosmopolitan Community|publisher=The Agora Cosmopolitan|location=Ottawa|year=1997|page=288|isbn=0-9681906-0-X}}
* {{cite book|editor=Sheffe, Norman|title=Canadian / Canadien|publisher=Ryerson Educational Division, McGraw-Hill Co. of Canada|location=Toronto|year=1971|page=121|isbn=0-07-092860-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Siegfried|first=André|title=The Race Question in Canada|publisher=Eveleigh Nash|location=London|year=1907|page=[https://archive.org/details/racequestioninca00sieguoft/page/343 343]|url=https://archive.org/details/racequestioninca00sieguoft|author-link=André Siegfried}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Allan|title=Canada: An American Nation? Essays on Continentalism, Identity and the Canadian Frame of Mind|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=1994|page=398|isbn=0-7735-1229-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Stanfield|first=Robert L.|title=Nationalism: A Canadian Dilemma?|publisher=Mount Allison University|location=Sackville, N.B.|year=1978|page=41|isbn=0-88828-017-3|author-link=Robert L. Stanfield}}
* {{cite book|editor=Studin, Irvin|title=What is a Canadian? Forty-Three Thought-Provoking Responses|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|location=Toronto|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/whatiscanadianfo00stud/page/273 273]|isbn=978-0-7710-8321-1|url=https://archive.org/details/whatiscanadianfo00stud/page/273}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Charles|title=Reconciling the Solitudes: Essays on Canadian Federalism and Nationalism|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=1993|page=208|isbn=0-7735-1105-9|author-link=Charles Taylor (philosopher)}}
* {{cite book|last=Thacker|first=Robert|title="Sharing the Continent" Still: English Canadian Nationalism and Cultural Sovereignty|publisher=Canadian Studies Center, Bowling Green State University|location=Bowling Green, Ohio|year=1996|page=18}}
* {{cite book|editor=Wade, Mason|title=Canadian dualism : studies of French-English relations|url=https://archive.org/details/canadiandualisms0000wade|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto|year=1960|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiandualisms0000wade/page/427 427]|isbn=9780802070258 }}
* {{cite book|last=Wallace|first=William Stewart|title=The Growth of Canadian National Feeling|publisher=MacMillan|location=Toronto|year=1927|page=85}}
* {{cite book|last=Webber|first=Jeremy H. A.|title=Reimagining Canada: Language, Culture, Community and the Canadian Constitution|url=https://archive.org/details/reimaginingcanad0000webb|url-access=registration|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=1994|page=[https://archive.org/details/reimaginingcanad0000webb/page/373 373]|isbn=0-7735-1146-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Wilden|first=Anthony|title=The Imaginary Canadian|publisher=Pulp Press|location=Vancouver|year=1980|page=261|isbn=0-88978-088-9|author-link=Anthony Wilden}}
* {{cite book|last=Woodcock|first=George|title=The Century that Made Us: Canada 1814-1914|publisher=Oxford University Press Canada|location=Don Mills, Ontario|year=1989|page=280|isbn=0-19-540703-2|author-link=George Woodcock}}
* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert W.|title=Economics, Enlightenment, and Canadian Nationalism|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|year=1993|page=135|isbn=0-7735-0980-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Young|first=James|title=Canadian Nationality. A glance at the present and future, being an address delivered by the Hon. James Young, of Galt, before the members of the National Club of Toronto, on the evening of the 21st April, '91|publisher=R.G. McLean|location=Toronto|year=1891}}
{{Refend}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Canadian Nationalism}}
[[Category:Canadian nationalism| ]]
[[Category:Political terminology in Canada|Nationalism]]
[[Category:Canadian identity|Nationalism]]