Editing Canadian raising

{{Short description|Allophonic rule of vowels prominent in Canada, also found in N. American English dialects}}
{{Redirect|Aboot|the bootloader|Startup process of Android devices#Aboot}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = March 2019}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2009}}
[[File:Canadian raising on a vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|A simplified diagram of Canadian raising {{Harvcol|Rogers|2000|p=124}}. Actual starting points vary.]]
'''Canadian raising''' (also sometimes known as '''English diphthong raising'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Swan |first=Julia Thomas |date=2021-01-01 |title=Same PRICE Different HOUSE |url=https://www.academia.edu/72144203 |journal=Swan}}</ref>) is an [[allophone|allophonic]] rule of [[phonology]] in many varieties of [[North American English]] that changes the pronunciation of [[diphthong]]s with [[open vowel|open-vowel]] starting points. Most commonly, the shift affects {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-eye.ogg|aɪ}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-ow.ogg|aʊ}}, or both, when they are pronounced before [[voiceless consonant]]s (therefore, in words like ''price'' and ''clout'', respectively, but not in ''prize'' and ''cloud''). In North American English, {{IPA|/aɪ/}} and {{IPA|/aʊ/}} usually begin in an open vowel [{{IPA link|ä}}~{{IPA link|a}}], but through [[Vowel#Height|raising]] they shift to {{IPAblink|ɐ|audio=y}}, {{IPAblink|ʌ|audio=y}} or {{IPAblink|ə|audio=y}}. [[Canadian English]] often has raising in words with both {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} (''height, life, psych, type'', etc.) and {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} (''clout, house, south, scout,'' etc.), while a number of [[American English]] varieties (such as [[Inland North]], [[Western New England English|Western New England]], and increasingly more [[General American]] accents) have this feature in {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} but not {{IPAc-en|aʊ}}. It is thought to have originated in Canada in the late 19th century.<ref name=":0" />

In the U.S., ''aboot'' {{IPA|[əˈbut]}}, an exaggerated version of the raised pronunciation of ''about'' {{IPA|[əˈbʌʊt]}}, is a [[stereotype]] of Canadian English.{{sfn|Boberg|2004|p=360}}

Although the symbol {{angle bracket|ʌ}} is defined as an [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], {{angle bracket|ʌɪ}} or {{angle bracket|ʌʊ}} may signify any raised vowel that contrasts with unraised {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} or {{IPAc-en|aʊ}}, when the exact quality of the raised vowel is not important in the given context.

==Description==
{{listen
| type         = speech
| header       = Examples of Canadian raising in American English
| filename     = En-us-rider-writer.ogg
| title        = ''rider'', ''writer''
| description  = {{IPA|[ˈɹaɪɾɚ]}} without raising,<br>{{IPA|[ˈɹɐɪɾɚ]}} with it
| filename2    = En-us-highschool, high school.ogg
| title2       = ''high school''
| description2 = {{IPA|[ˈhɐɪskul]}} "[[secondary school]]" with raising,<br>{{IPA|[ˌhaɪ ˈskul]}} "school that is high up" without it
| filename3    = En-us-bowed bout.ogg
| title3       = ''bowed'', ''bout''
| description3 = {{IPA|[baʊd]}} without raising,<br>{{IPA|[bɜʊt]}} with it
| filename4    = En-us-about, a boot, a boat.ogg
| title4       = ''about'', ''a boot'', ''a boat''
| description4 = {{IPA|[əˈbɜʊt]}} with raising,<br>compared with ''oo'' in {{IPA|[ə ˈbut]}}<br>and ''oh'' in {{IPA|[ə ˈbɤʊt]}}
}}

===Phonetic environment===
In general, Canadian raising affects vowels before [[voicelessness|voiceless]] consonants like {{IPAc-en|f}}, {{IPAc-en|θ}}, {{IPAc-en|t}}, and {{IPAc-en|s}}. Vowels before voiced consonants like {{IPAc-en|v}}, {{IPAc-en|ð}}, {{IPAc-en|d}}, and {{IPAc-en|z}} are usually not raised. Furthermore, it usually only happens within word boundaries. It has also been described as being blocked when the diphthong has less than primary stress and is immediately followed by a stressed syllable, resulting in a lack of raising in words like ''psychology, citation'' and ''micrometer'', but raising in ''Psyche, cite,'' and ''microphone''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chambers |first=J. K. |date=1973 |title=Canadian raising |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/canadian-raising/3D6C8335233506772A7F87EAE6664E2B |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=113–135 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100007350 |issn=0008-4131|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This can be further explained with [[syllable]] structure<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Paradis |first=Carole |date=April 1980 |title=La règle de Canadian Raising et l’analyse en structure syllabique |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/la-regle-de-canadian-raising-et-lanalyse-en-structure-syllabique/1389CAC5E57464716D9F17C51A7921D5 |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100009166 |issn=0008-4131|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chambers |first=J. K. |date=1989 |title=Canadian Raising: Blocking, Fronting, etc. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/455114?origin=crossref |journal=American Speech |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=77–80 |doi=10.2307/455114 |issn=0003-1283|url-access=subscription }}</ref> or [[Metrical foot|feet]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiparsky |first=Paul |date=1979 |title=Metrical Structure Assignment Is Cyclic |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4178120 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=440 |issn=0024-3892}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

However, several studies indicate that this rule is not completely accurate, and have attempted to formulate different rules.

A study of three speakers in [[Meaford, Ontario]], showed that pronunciation of the diphthong {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} fell on a continuum between raised and unraised. Raising is influenced by voicing of the following consonant, but it may also be influenced by the sound before the diphthong. Frequently the diphthong was raised when preceded by a [[coronal consonant|coronal]]: in ''gigantic'', ''dinosaur'', and ''Siberia''.{{sfn|Hall|2005|pp=194–5}}

Raising before {{IPA|/r/}}, as in ''wire'', ''iris'', and ''fire'', has been documented in some American accents.{{sfn|Vance|1987|p=200}}

Raising can apply to [[compound (linguistics)|compound words]].  Hence, the first vowel in ''[[High school (North America)|high school]]'' {{IPA|[ˈhʌɪskul]}} as a term meaning "a secondary school for students approximately 14–18 years old" may be raised, whereas ''high school'' {{IPA|[ˌhaɪ ˈskul]}} with the literal meaning of "a school that is high (e.g. in elevation)" is unaffected. (The two terms are also distinguished by the position of the stress accent, as shown.) The same is true of "high chair".{{sfn|Vance|1987|pp=197–8}}

However, frequently it does not. One study of speakers in [[Rochester, New York]] and [[Minnesota]] found a very inconsistent pattern of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} raising before voiceless consonants in certain prefixes; for example, the numerical prefix ''bi-'' was raised in ''bicycle'' but not ''bisexual'' or ''bifocals''. Likewise, the vowel was consistently kept low when used in a prefix in words like ''dichotomy'' and ''anti-Semitic''. This pattern may have to do with stress or familiarity of the word to the speaker; however, these relations are still inconsistent.{{sfn|Vance|1987}}

In most dialects of North American English, intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are pronounced as an [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} when the following vowel is unstressed or word-initial, a phenomenon known as ''[[flapping]]''. In accents with both flapping and Canadian raising, {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} or {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} before a flapped {{IPA|/t/}} may still be raised, even though the flap is a voiced consonant. Hence, while in accents without raising, ''writer'' and ''rider'' are pronounced differently as a result of a slight difference in vowel length due to [[pre-fortis clipping]], in accents with raising, the words may be distinguished by their vowels: ''writer'' {{IPA|[ˈɹʌɪɾɚ]}}, ''rider'' {{IPA|[ˈɹaɪɾɚ]}}.{{sfn|Vance|1987|p=202}}

===Result===
The raised variant of {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} typically becomes {{IPA|[ɐɪ]}}. In most of Canada, the raised vowel is further front than {{IPAc-en|aɪ}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boberg |first=Charles |title=Boberg (2008) JENGL paper on Regional Phonetic Differentiation in Canadian English |url=https://www.academia.edu/7683591}}</ref> and in traditional [[New York accent|New York City]] English, {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} is backed towards {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}} except before voiceless consonants, resulting in a distinction based more on frontness,{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} but in Philadelphia it may be more back.{{sfn|Fruehwald|2007}}

The raised variant of {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} varies by dialect, with {{IPA|[ɐʊ~ʌʊ]}} more common in [[Western Canada]] and a fronted variant {{IPA|[ɜʊ~ɛʊ]}} commonly heard in [[Central Canada]].{{sfn|Boberg|2004|p=360}} In any case, the open vowel component of the [[diphthong]]s changes to a mid vowel ({{IPAblink|ʌ}}, {{IPAblink|ɐ}}, {{IPAblink|ɛ}} or {{IPAblink|ə}}).

==Geographic distribution==
===Inside Canada===
As its name implies, Canadian raising is found throughout most of Canada, though the exact phonetic quality of Canadian raising may differ throughout the country. In raised {{IPAc-en|aʊ}}, the first element tends to be farther back in [[Quebec]] and the [[Canadian Prairies]] (particularly in [[Alberta]]) and [[Canadian Maritimes|Maritimes]]: thus, {{IPA|[ʌʊ]}}. The first element tends to be the farthest forward in eastern and southern [[Ontario]]: thus, {{IPA|[ɛʊ~ɜʊ]}}.<ref>Boberg, Charles (2008). "Regional Phonetic Differentiation in Standard Canadian English". ''Journal of English Linguistics'', 36(2), 129–154, p. 140-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0075424208316648</ref> [[Newfoundland English]] is the Canadian dialect that participates least in any conditioned Canadian raising, while [[Vancouver]] English may lack the raising of {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} in particular.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2005|p=203}}

===Outside Canada===
Canadian raising is not restricted to Canada. Raising of both {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} and {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} is common in [[New England English|eastern New England]], for example in some [[Boston accent|Boston]] accents (the former more likely than the latter),{{sfn|Boberg|2010|p=156}} as well as in the [[Upper Midwest American English|Upper Midwest]]. [[South Atlantic English]], [[New Orleans English]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pubs.aip.org/asa/jasa/article/147/1/554/828838/The-rise-of-Canadian-raising-of-au-in-New-Orleans |title=The Rise of Canadian Raising of au in New Orleans|access-date=2023-04-26 |website=pubs.aip.org}}</ref> and the accents of England's [[The Fens|Fens]] feature it as well. Raisinɡ of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} before voiceless consonants is found in Wisbech, March, and Chatteris in the Central Fens and King's Lynn, Downham Market, and Ely in the Eastern Fens but not in the Western Fens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Britain |first=David |date=1997 |title=Dialect Contact and Phonological Reallocation: "Canadian Raising" in the English Fens |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4168748 |journal=Language in Society |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=15–46 |issn=0047-4045}}</ref>

Raising of just {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} is found in a much greater number of dialects in the United States; some researchers have begun to refer to raising of {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} without raising of {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} as '''American Raising'''.{{sfn|Davis|Berkson|2021}} This phenomenon is most consistently found in the [[Inland North]], the [[Upper Midwest American English|Upper Midwest]], [[New England English|New England]], [[New York City English|New York City]], and the mid-Atlantic areas of Pennsylvania (including [[Philadelphia English|Philadelphia]]), Maryland, and Delaware, as well as in Virginia.{{sfn|Boberg|2010|p=156}}{{sfn|Kaye|2012}}{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2005|p=203}} It is somewhat less common in the lower Midwest, the [[Western American English|West]], and the [[Southern American English|South]]. However, there is considerable variation in the raising of {{IPAc-en|aɪ}}, and it can be found inconsistently throughout the United States.{{sfn|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2005|p=203}}

==Raising in other environments==
Raising of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} before certain voiced consonants is most prominent in the [[Inland Northern American English|Inland North]], Western New England, and [[Philadelphia English|Philadelphia]].{{sfn|Fruehwald|2007}} It has been noted to occur before {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and {{IPA|[n]}} especially. Hence, words like ''tiny'', ''spider'', ''cider'', ''tiger'', ''dinosaur'', ''cyber-'', ''beside'', ''idle'' (but sometimes not ''idol''), and ''fire''  may contain a raised nucleus. (Also note that in six of those nine words, {{IPA|/aɪ/}} is preceded by a coronal consonant; see above paragraph.  In five [or possibly six] of those nine words, the syllable after the syllable with {{IPA|/aɪ/}} contains a [[Liquid consonant|liquid]].) The use of {{IPA|[ʌɪ]}} rather than {{IPA|[aɪ]}} in such words is unpredictable from phonetic environment alone, though it may have to do with their acoustic similarity to other words that ''do'' contain {{IPA|[ʌɪ]}} before a voiceless consonant, per the traditional Canadian-raising system.<!-- Sounds similar to the statement about biphone neighborhoods. --> Hence, some researchers have argued that there has been a [[phonemic split]] in these dialects; the distribution of the two sounds is becoming more unpredictable among younger speakers.{{sfn|Fruehwald|2007}}

The raising of {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} is also present in [[Ulster English]], spoken in the northern region of the [[island of Ireland]], in which {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} is split between the sound {{IPA|[ä(ː)e]}} (before voiced consonants or in final position) and the sound {{IPA|[ɛɪ~ɜɪ]}} (before voiceless consonants but also sometimes in any position); phonologist Raymond Hickey has described this Ulster raising as "embryonically the situation" for Canadian raising.{{sfn|Hickey|2007|p=335}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|Linguistics}}
*[[Canadian Shift]]
*[[North American English regional phonology]]
*[[North-Central American English]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
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{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Canadian Raising}}
[[Category:Canadian English]]
[[Category:English phonology]]
[[Category:English language in Canada]]
[[Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology]]
[[Category:Vowel shifts]]