Editing Caper

{{Short description|Species of plant (Capparis spinosa)}}
{{Other uses|Caper (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = ''Capparis spinosa''
|image = Illustration Capparis spinosa0.jpg
|image_caption = Illustration by [[Otto Wilhelm Thomé]]
|genus = Capparis
|species = spinosa
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>Rankou, H., M'Sou, S., Diarra, A. & Ait Babahmad, R.A. 2020. ''Capparis spinosa''. [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] 2020: e.T137745831A139593491. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T137745831A139593491.en. Downloaded on 24 September 2021.</ref>
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1753
|synonyms_ref = <ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-128727 The Plant List, ''Capparis spinosa'' L]</ref>
|synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true
|title=<small>Synonymy</small>
|''[[Blumea grandiflora]]'' <small>Zipp. ex Span.</small>
|''[[Capparis aculeata]]'' <small>Steud.</small>
|''[[Capparis microphylla]]'' <small>Ledeb.</small>
|''[[Capparis murrayi]]'' <small>Stewart ex Dalz.</small>
|''[[Capparis ovalis]]'' <small>Risso</small>
|''[[Capparis ovata]]'' <small>Desf.</small>
|''[[Capparis peduncularis]]'' <small>C.Presl</small>
|''[[Capparis sativa]]'' <small>Pers.</small>}}
}}
[[File:میوه لگچی در بهبهان.jpg|alt=Capparis spinosa fruit in Behbahan|thumb|''Capparis spinosa'' fruits in [[Behbahan]]]]

'''''Capparis spinosa''''', the '''caper bush''', also called '''Flinders rose''',<ref>{{GRIN | access-date = 11 December 2017}}</ref> is a [[perennial]] plant that bears rounded, fleshy leaves and large white to pinkish-white flowers.<ref>[http://luirig.altervista.org/flora/taxa/index1.php?scientific-name=capparis+spinosa Altervista Flora Italiana, Cappero, Kapernstrauch, ''Capparis spinosa'' L.] includes photos and European distribution map</ref><ref>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200009171 Flora of China, {{lang|zh|山柑}} shan gan, ''Capparis spinosa'' Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 503. 1753. ]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bie.ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/node/apni/7446788|title=''Capparis spinosa'' L.|author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Atlas of Living Australia}}</ref>

The taxonomic status of the species is controversial and unsettled. Species within the genus ''Capparis'' are highly variable, and [[interspecific hybrids]] have been common throughout the evolutionary history of the genus. As a result, some authors have considered ''C.&nbsp;spinosa'' to be composed of multiple distinct species,<ref>Zohary, M. (1960). "The species of ''Capparis'' in the Mediterranean and the Near Eastern Countries." ''Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel,'' Section D, Botany '''8'''(2): 49-64</ref> others that the taxon is a single species with multiple varieties or subspecies,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jacobs, M. |date=1965 |title=The genus ''Capparis'' (Capparaceae) from the Indus to the Pacific |url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/565512 |journal=Blumea |volume=12 |pages=385–541}}</ref><ref>Heywood V.H. (1993). "Flowering plants of the world." Oxford University Press, New York</ref> or that the taxon ''C.&nbsp;spinosa'' is a hybrid between ''C.&nbsp;orientalis'' and ''C.&nbsp;sicula''.<ref name="295–313">D. Rivera, C. Inocencio, C. Obón, E. Carreño, A. Reales, F. Alcaraz. (2002). "Archaeobotany of capers (''Capparis'') (Capparaceae)." ''Vegetation History and Archaeobotany.'' '''11'''(4): 295–313</ref>

''Capparis spinosa'' is native to almost all the [[Mediterranean Basin|circum-Mediterranean countries]],<ref name="Fici">{{cite journal |last=Fici |first=S. |date=2001 |title=Intraspecific variation and evolutionary trends in ''Capparis spinosa'' L. (Capparaceae) |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |volume=228 |issue=3–4 |pages=123–141 |bibcode=2001PSyEv.228..123F |doi=10.1007/s006060170024 |s2cid=8713605}}<!--|access-date = 2006-11-21--></ref> and is included in the flora of most of them, but whether it is [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to this region is uncertain. The family [[Capparaceae]] could have originated in the tropics and later spread to the Mediterranean basin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pugnaire de Iraola |first=F.I. |year=1989 |title=Nota sobre las ''Capparaceae'' ibéricas |journal=Blancoana |volume=7 |pages=121–122}}</ref>

The plant is best known for the edible flower buds ('''capers'''), used as a seasoning or garnish, and the fruit ('''caper berries'''), both of which are usually consumed [[Salting (food)|salted]] or [[pickled]]. Other species of ''Capparis'' are also picked along with ''C.&nbsp;spinosa'' for their buds or fruits. Other parts of ''Capparis'' plants are used in the manufacture of medicines and cosmetics.

== Description ==
[[File:კაპარი Capparis spinosa Kapernstrauch.JPG|thumb|Leaves and flower buds]]
[[File:Caper Flower in Behbahan, Iran.jpg|alt=Caper Flower in Behbahan, Iran|thumb|Caper flower in [[Behbahan]]]]

The shrubby plant is many-branched, with [[Phyllotaxis|alternate leaves]], thick and shiny, round to [[Glossary of botanical terms#ovate|ovate]]. The flowers are [[Plant sexuality|complete]], sweetly fragrant, and showy, with four sepals and four white to pinkish-white petals, many long violet-coloured stamens, and a single stigma usually rising well above the stamens.<ref>{{cite web|last=Watson |first=L. |author2=M.J. Dallwitz |title=The Families of Flowering Plants |date=1992 |url=http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/capparid.htm |access-date=21 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061101100756/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/capparid.htm |archive-date=1 November 2006 }}</ref>

== Accepted infraspecifics ==
Eleven [[Infraspecific name|subspecies]] and variants are accepted, according to [[Plants of the World Online]]:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capparis spinosa L. {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:146789-1#children |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=Plants of the World Online |language=en}}</ref>

* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''aegyptia'' (Lam.) Boiss.
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''atlantica'' (Inocencio, D.Rivera, Obón & Alcaraz) Fici
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''canescens'' Coss.
* [[Capparis spinosa subsp. cordifolia|''Capparis spinosa'' subsp. ''cordifolia'']] (Lam.) Fici
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''herbacea'' (Willd.) Fici
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''mucronifolia'' (Boiss.) Hedge & Lamond ex R.R.Stewart
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''myrtifolia'' (Inocencio, D.Rivera, Obón & Alcaraz) Fici
* ''Capparis spinosa'' var. ''ovata'' (Desf.) Sm.
* ''Capparis spinosa'' subsp. ''parviflora'' (Boiss.) Ahmadi, H.Saeidi & Mirtadz.
* ''Capparis spinosa'' subsp. ''rupestris'' (Sm.) Nyman
* ''Capparis spinosa'' subsp. ''spinosa''

''[[Capparis spinosa subsp. nummularia|Capparis nummularia]]'' was formerly considered a subspecies of ''Capparis spinosa.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capparis spinosa subsp. nummularia (DC.) Fici {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:70029689-1 |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=Plants of the World Online |language=en}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
''Capparis spinosa'' ranges around the [[Mediterranean Basin]], [[Arabian Peninsula]], and portions of Western and Central Asia.

In southern Europe, it is found in southern Portugal, southern and eastern Spain (including the Balearic Islands), Mediterranean France including Corsica, Italy including Sicily and Sardinia, Croatia's Dalmatian islands, Albania, Greece and the Greek Islands, western and southern Turkey, on Cyprus, and on the Crimean Peninsula in Ukraine. In Spain, it ranges from sea level up to {{convert|1300|m}} in elevation.<ref name = iucn/>

In northern Africa, it is found throughout the north and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, where it occurs from sea level up to {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} in elevation. It is also found in northern Algeria (Kabylie, coastal Algeria, Bouzaréa, and Oran) and the [[Hoggar Mountains]] of the Algerian Sahara, in Tunisia north of the Sahara, and [[Cyrenaica]] in Libya.<ref name = iucn/>

In western Asia, it is found along the eastern Mediterranean in Lebanon, Israel, Syria, and western Jordan, and in the southern Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It is also found south of the Caucasus in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and northeastern Turkey. On the Arabian Peninsula it occurs in Oman, Yemen including [[Socotra]], and Asir province of Saudi Arabia. In central Asia, it inhabits the mountains of central Afghanistan, the lower Karakoram range in northern Pakistan and Ladakh, and Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and eastern Uzbekistan.<ref name = iucn/>

=== Environmental requirements ===
[[File:Capparis spinosa Negev.JPG|thumb|Thorny caper flower in [[Israel]]]]
[[File:Capparis cartilaginea open fruit.jpg|thumb|Open ripe caper fruit]]

The caper bush requires a semiarid or arid climate. The caper bush has developed a series of mechanisms that reduce the impact of high radiation levels, high daily temperature, and insufficient soil water during its growing period.<ref>Rhizopoulou, S. (1990). "Physiological responses of ''Capparis spinosa'' L. to drought." ''Journal of Plant Physiology'' '''136''': 341–348.</ref><ref>Levizou, E; P. Drilias; A. Kyparissis (2004). "Exceptional photosynthetic performance of ''Capparis spinosa'' L. under adverse conditions of Mediterranean summer." ''Photosynthetica.'' '''42''': 229–235</ref>

In response to sudden increases in humidity, the bush forms wart-like pockmarks across the leaf surface. It quickly adjusts to the new conditions and produces unaffected leaves.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

==Agriculture==
[[File:Flowering caper plant.jpg|thumb|Flowering caper plant, soon to yield caper berries]]

Capers can be grown easily from fresh seeds gathered from ripe fruit and planted into a well-drained seed-raising mix. Seedlings appear in two to four weeks. Old, stored seeds enter a state of [[dormancy]] and require cold [[Stratification (botany)|stratification]] to germinate. The viable embryos germinate within three to four days after partial removal of the [[lignified]] seed coats.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sozzi|first=G.O.|author2=A. Chiesa|date=1995|title=Improvement of caper (''Capparis spinosa'' L.) seed germination by breaking seed coat-induced dormancy|journal=Scientia Horticulturae|volume=62|issue=4|pages=255–261|doi=10.1016/0304-4238(95)00779-S|bibcode=1995ScHor..62..255S }}<!--|access-date = 2010-08-25--></ref> The seed coats and the mucilage surrounding the seeds may be ecological adaptations to avoid water loss and conserve seed viability during the dry season.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

=== Orchard establishment ===
Mean annual temperatures in areas under cultivation are over {{Convert|14|C|F}}. A rainy spring and a hot, dry summer are considered advantageous.<ref>Barbera, B. (1991). Le câprier (''Capparis'' spp.). EUR 13617, Série Agriculture, Programme de recherche Agrimed. Commission des Communautés européennes, Luxembourg, 63 pp.</ref> This drought-tolerant perennial plant is used for landscaping and reducing erosion along highways, steep rocky slopes, dunes or fragile semiarid ecosystems.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

=== Harvest ===
Caper buds are usually picked in the morning.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Au3RBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA121|title=Top 100 Exotic Food Plants|last=Small|first=Ernest|date=2011-08-23|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1439856888|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=121–123|language=en}}</ref> Because the youngest, smallest buds fetch the highest prices, daily picking is typical.<ref name=":0" />

Capers may be harvested from wild plants, in which case it is necessary to know that the plant is not one of the few poisonous ''Capparis'' species that look similar.<ref name=":0" /> The plant normally has curved thorns that may scratch the people who harvest the buds, although a few spineless varieties have been developed.<ref name=":0" />

== Uses ==
{{nutritionalvalue
| name = Capers, prepared, canned
| kJ = 96
| water = 83.8 g
| protein = 2.4 g
| fat = 0.9 g
| carbs = 5 g
| sugars = 0.4 g
| fiber = 3 g
| calcium_mg = 40
| iron_mg = 1.7
| magnesium_mg = 33
| sodium_mg = 2350
| thiamin_mg = 0.018
| riboflavin_mg = 0.139
| niacin_mg = 0.652
| pantothenic_mg = 0.027
| vitB6_mg = 0.023
| folate_ug = 23
| vitC_mg = 4
| vitE_mg = 0.88
| vitK_ug = 24.6
| opt1n = Selenium
| opt1v = 1.2 μg
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/172238/nutrients Link to USDA Nutrient Database Entry]
}}

=== Nutrition ===
Canned, pickled capers are 84% water, 5% [[carbohydrates]], 2% [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 1% [[fat]]. Preserved capers are particularly high in [[sodium]] due to the amount of salt added to the [[brine]]. In a typical serving of 28 grams (one [[ounce]]), capers supply 6 [[kilocalorie|kcal]] and 35% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) for sodium, with no other [[nutrients]] in significant content. In a 100-gram amount, the sodium content is 2350&nbsp;mg or 102% DV, with [[vitamin K]] (21% DV) and [[riboflavin]] (11% DV) also having appreciable levels.

=== Culinary ===
{{Cookbook|Caper}}
[[File:Capers jar.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Pickled capers in a&nbsp;jar]]

The [[Salting (food)|salted]] and [[pickling|pickled]] caper bud (simply called a "caper") is used as an ingredient, [[seasoning]], or [[Garnish (food)|garnish]]. Capers are a common ingredient in [[Mediterranean cuisine]], especially [[Cypriot cuisine|Cypriot]], [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], [[Greek cuisine|Aeolian Greek]], and [[Maltese cuisine|Maltese]] food. The immature [[fruit]] of the caper [[shrub]] are prepared similarly and marketed as "caper berries". Fully mature fruit are not preferred, as they contain many hard seeds.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

The buds, when ready to pick, are a dark [[Olive (color)|olive green]] and range in size from under {{Convert|7|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}} to more than {{Convert|14|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}}. They are picked, then pickled in [[salt]] or a salt and vinegar solution, and drained. Intense flavour, sometimes described as being similar to black pepper or mustard, is developed as glucocapparin, a [[glycoside]] organosulfur molecule, is released from each caper bud.<ref name=":0" /> This [[enzymatic reaction]] leads to the formation of [[rutin]], often seen as crystallized white spots on the surfaces of individual caper buds.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Capers are a distinctive ingredient in Italian cuisine, especially in [[Sicily|Sicilian]], [[Aeolian Islands|Aeolian]] and southern Italian cooking. They are commonly used in [[salad]]s, [[pasta salad]]s, meat dishes, and [[pasta]] [[sauces]]. Examples of uses in Italian cuisine are [[piccata]] dishes, [[vitello tonnato]] and ''[[spaghetti alla puttanesca]]''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Capers are sometimes an ingredient in [[tartar sauce]]. They are often served with [[smoking (food)|cold smoked]] salmon or [[cured salmon]] dishes, especially [[lox]] and cream cheese. Capers and caper berries are sometimes substituted for olives to garnish a [[martini (cocktail)|martini]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Capers are categorized and sold by their size, defined as follows, with the smallest sizes being the most desirable: non-pareil (up to 7&nbsp;mm), surfines (7–8&nbsp;mm), capucines (8–9&nbsp;mm), capotes (9–11&nbsp;mm), fines (11–13&nbsp;mm), and grusas (14+&nbsp;mm). If the caper bud is not picked, it flowers and produces a caper berry. The fruit can be pickled and then served as a Greek ''[[mezze]]''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Caper leaves, which are hard to find outside of [[Greece]] or [[Cyprus]], are used particularly in salads and fish dishes. They are pickled or boiled and preserved in jars with brine—like caper buds.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Dried caper leaves are also used as a substitute for [[rennet]] in manufacturing high-quality cheese.<ref>Mike, Tad, "Capers: The Flower Inside", ''Epikouria Magazine'', Fall/Winter 2006</ref>

=== Polyphenols ===
Canned capers contain [[polyphenol]]s, including the [[flavonoid]]s [[quercetin]] (173&nbsp;mg per 100 g) and [[kaempferol]] (131&nbsp;mg per 100 g),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/Flav/flav.pdf |title=USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods, Release 3, page 16 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |date=2011 |access-date=12 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716210723/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/Flav/flav.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2012 }}</ref> as well as [[anthocyanin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=25377263|pmc=4698273|year=2016|last1=Mansour|first1=R. B.|title=Phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Capparis spinosa|journal=Cytotechnology|volume=68|issue=1|pages=135–42|last2=Jilani|first2=I. B.|last3=Bouaziz|first3=M|last4=Gargouri|first4=B|last5=Elloumi|first5=N|last6=Attia|first6=H|last7=Ghrabi-Gammar|first7=Z|last8=Lassoued|first8=S|doi=10.1007/s10616-014-9764-6}}</ref>

=== Other uses ===
Capers are sometimes used in cosmetics.<ref name=":0" />

== History ==
[[Paleoethnobotany|Archaeobotanical]] evidence of capers has been found in the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] region and [[Mesopotamia]] as early as the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period.<ref name="295–313" />

The caper was used in [[ancient Greece]] as a [[carminative]]. It is represented in [[archaeological]] levels in the form of [[Carbonization|carbonised]] [[seed]]s and rarely as flower buds and fruits from [[Archaic Greece|archaic]] and [[classical antiquity]] contexts. [[Athenaeus]] in ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'' pays a lot of attention to the caper, as do [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] (''NH'' XIX, XLVIII.163) and [[Theophrastus]].<ref>Fragiska, M. (2005). Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Herbs and Spices in Greek Antiquity. ''Environmental Archaeology'' '''10''' (1): 73–82</ref>

[[Etymologically]], the caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to [[Classical Latin]] ''capparis'', "caper", in turn, borrowed from the [[Greek language|Greek]] κάππαρις, ''kápparis'', whose origin (as with that of the plant) is unknown but is probably Asian.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} Another theory links ''kápparis'' to the name of the island of [[Cyprus]] (Κύπρος, ''Kýpros''), where capers grow abundantly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Capp_spi.html|title=Spice Pages: Capers (Capparis spinosa)|author=Gernot Katzer|work=gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com}}</ref>

[[File:Capparis fruit.JPG|thumb|right|A ripe caper fruit (caper berry)]]

In [[Biblical times]], the caper berry was supposed to have [[aphrodisiac]] properties;<ref name="JE">{{cite encyclopedia |author1-first=Kaufmann |author1-last=Kohler |author1-link=Kaufmann Kohler |author2-first=Henry |author2-last=Hyvernat |author2-link=Henry Hyvernat |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3999-caper-berry |title=Caper-berry |encyclopedia=[[The Jewish Encyclopedia]] |date=1906}}</ref> the Hebrew word ''aviyyonah'' (אֲבִיּוֹנָה) for caperberry is closely linked to the Hebrew root אבה (avah), meaning "desire".<ref>See, e.g. [http://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H35&t=KJV Gesenius's lexicon], via Blue Letter Bible</ref>

The berries (''abiyyonot'') were eaten, as appears from their liability to tithes and the restrictions of the [['Orlah]]. They are carefully distinguished in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] from the caper leaves, ''alin'', shoots, ''temarot'',<ref name="Brachot 36">Talmud Bavli, Brachot 36a-36b</ref> and the caper buds, ''capperisin'' (note the similarity "caper"isin to "caper");<ref>Kaf HaChaim 208</ref> all of which were eaten as seen from the blessing requirement, and declared to be the fruit of the ''ẓelaf'' or caper plant.<ref name="Brachot 36"/>
The "capperisin" mentioned in the Talmud are actually referring to a shell that protected the "abiyyonot" as it grew.<ref name="Rashi Brachot 36a">Rashi Brachot 36a</ref>

[[Talmud Bavli]] discusses the eating of caper sepals versus caper berries, both in [[Israel]] and in [[Syria]].<ref name="Brachot 36"/>

Capers are mentioned as a spice in the Roman cookbook ''[[Apicius]]''.<ref name=":0"/>

In his 14th-century work ''Kaftor va-Ferach ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: כפתור ופרח)'', [[Ishtori Haparchi]] notes that capers were grown in the [[Jordan Valley]] region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Amar |first=Zohar |last2= |first2= |date=1993 |title=Estori ha-Parchi and the Identification of the Flora of Eretz Israel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23536280 |journal=Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies |language=he |volume=11 |pages=137 |issn=0333-9068}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of endemic plants in the Mariana Islands]]
* [[Capparis spinosa subsp. cordifolia|''Capparis spinosa'' subsp. ''cordifolia'']]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies|Capparis spinosa|''Capparis spinosa''}}
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/caper.html Caper factsheet]{{snd}}NewCROP, Purdue University
* [http://www.caperplants.com Caperplants]
* Brian Noone (2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hLJhDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Capers: From Wild Harvest to Gourmet Food'']. Ethelton, S. Aust.: Caperplants. {{ISBN|9780995353008}}. {{OCLC|962480826}}.

{{Taxonbar|from=Q156251}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Capparis]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft]]
[[Category:Bushfood]]
[[Category:Edible plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Australia]]
[[Category:Flora of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of North Africa]]
[[Category:Flora of Socotra]]
[[Category:Flora of temperate Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of the Hajar Mountains]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Africa]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Oceania]]
[[Category:Pickles]]
[[Category:Spices]]