Editing Cardinal Richelieu

{{Short description|French statesman and clergyman (1585–1642)}}
{{Redirect|The Red Eminence|the Soviet statesman also known by that epithet|Mikhail Suslov}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix    = [[Eminence (style)|His Grand Eminence]]
| name                = The Duke of Richelieu
| honorific-suffix    = [[Order of the Holy Spirit|COHS]]
| image               = Champaigne portrait richelieu eb.jpg
| caption             = [[Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu (Champaigne, Strasbourg)|Portrait of Richelieu]] by [[Philippe de Champaigne|Champaigne]], 1642 ([[Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg]])
| office              = [[Chief Minister of France|Chief Minister of State of France]]
| monarch             = [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]
| term_start          = 12 August 1624
| term_end            = 4 December 1642
| predecessor         = [[Concino Concini|The Marquis of Ancre]]<br/>''Vacant'' (1617–1624)
| successor           = [[Cardinal Mazarin|Jules Mazarin]]
| office1             = [[Governor of Brittany]]
| monarch1            = Louis XIII
| term_start1         = 17 April 1632
| term_end1           = 4 December 1642
| predecessor1        = {{ill|The Marquis of Thémines|fr|Pons de Lauzières-Thémines}}
| successor1          = [[Anne of Austria|Queen Anne]]
| office2             = [[Admiral of France|Grand Master of Navigation of France]]
| monarch2            = Louis XIII
| term_start2         = 1626
| term_end2           = 1642
| predecessor2        = [[Henri II de Montmorency|The Duke of Montmorency]]
| successor2          = [[Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé|The Marquis of Brézé]]
| office3             = [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (France)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs of France]]
| monarch3            = Louis XIII
| 1blankname3         = [[Chief Minister of France|First Minister of State]]
| 1namedata3          = [[Concino Concini]]
| term_start3         = 30 November 1616
| term_end3           = 24 April 1617
| predecessor3        = {{ill|Claude Mangot|fr}}
| successor3          = [[Pierre Brûlart, marquis de Sillery|The Marquis of Sillery]]
| office4             = [[Secretary of State for War (France)|Secretary of State for War of France]]
| monarch4            = Louis XIII
| 1blankname4         = [[Chief Minister of France|First Minister of State]]
| 1namedata4          = [[Concino Concini]]
| term_start4         = 25 November 1616
| term_end4           = 24 April 1617
| predecessor4        = Claude Mangot
| successor4          = [[Nicolas Brulart de Sillery]]
| status4             = Interim
| birth_name          = Armand Jean du Plessis
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1585|09|09|df=yes}}
| birth_place         = Paris, [[Kingdom of France|France]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|df=yes|1642|12|4|1585|9|9}}
| death_place         = Paris, France
| resting_place       = [[Sorbonne Chapel]]
| nationality         = [[French nationality law|French]]
| alma_mater          = [[College of Navarre]]
| profession          = Clergyman, statesman
| module              = {{Infobox Christian leader|embed=yes
| type             = cardinal
| title            = [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Luçon|Bishop of Luçon]]
| metropolis       = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux|Bordeaux]]
| diocese          = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Luçon|Luçon]]
| see              = [[Luçon]]
| appointed        = 18 December 1606
| term_start       = 17 April 1607
| term_end         = Before 29 April 1624
| predecessor      = François Yver
| successor        = Emery de Bragelongne
| consecration     = 17 April 1607
| consecrated_by   = [[Anne d'Escars de Givry]]
| cardinal         = 5 September 1622
| created_cardinal_by = [[Pope Gregory XV]]
| rank              = Cardinal-Priest
| previous_post    = {{unbulleted list|[[Territorial abbot]] [[Abbot|Coadjutor]] of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]] (1627–1635)|[[Territorial abbot]] of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]] (1635–1642)}}
| coat_of_arms     = Coat of Arms of Cardinal Richelieu.svg
| signature        = Cardinal Richelieu Signature.svg
}}
}}
{{Infobox cardinal styles
| cardinal name = Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu
| dipstyle      = His Grand Eminence
| offstyle      = Your Grand Eminence
| image         = Coat of Arms of Cardinal Richelieu.svg
| image_size    = 200px
| see           = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Luçon|Luçon]]
}}
'''Armand Jean du Plessis,{{efn|{{IPA|fr|aʁmɑ̃ ʒɑ̃ dy plɛsi|lang}}}} 1st Duke of Richelieu''' (9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as '''Cardinal Richelieu''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|r|ɪ|ʃ|ə|l|j|ɜr|,_|ˈ|r|iː|ʃ|-}},<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/richelieu|title= Richelieu|work= Collins English Dictionary|publisher= HarperCollins|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-date=29 July 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190729142210/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/richelieu|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Richelieu,+Duc+de |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220320081318/https://www.lexico.com/definition/richelieu,_duc_de |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2022-03-20 |title= Richelieu, Duc de |dictionary= Lexico UK English Dictionary |publisher= Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref name="LD">{{cite web|url= https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/cardinal-richelieu|title=Richelieu, Cardinal |work= Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English|publisher= Longman|access-date= 6 October 2019|archive-date= 6 October 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191006100200/https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/cardinal-richelieu|url-status= live}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|r|ɪ|ʃ|ə|l|(|j|)|uː|,_|ˈ|r|iː|ʃ|-}};<ref name="LD"/><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Richelieu|access-date= 29 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Richelieu|access-date= 29 July 2019}}</ref> {{langx|fr|Cardinal de Richelieu|links= no}} {{IPA|fr|kaʁdinal d(ə) ʁiʃ(ə)ljø||LL-Q150 (fra)-GrandCelinien-Richelieu.wav}}}} was a [[Catholic Church in France|French Catholic]] prelate and statesman who had an outsized influence in civil and religious affairs. He became known as '''the Red Eminence''' ({{langx|fr|l'Éminence Rouge}}), a term derived from the style of [[Eminence (style)|Eminence]] applied to [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinals]] and their customary red robes.

Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (France)|Foreign Secretary]] in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the [[Catholic Church]] and the French government, becoming a [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]] in 1622 and [[Chief minister of France|chief minister]] to King [[Louis XIII|Louis XIII of France]] in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal [[Cardinal Mazarin|Jules Mazarin]], whose career the cardinal had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with [[Marie de' Medici|Marie de Médici]], the king's mother, and formerly his close ally.

Richelieu sought to consolidate royal [[Power (politics)|power]] and restrained the power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong [[Centralisation|centralized]] state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check the power of the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg dynasty]] (reigning notably in [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]]) and to ensure French dominance in the [[Thirty Years' War]] of 1618–1648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the [[Huguenot rebellions]] of the 1620s, he made alliances with [[Protestantism |Protestant]] states like the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Dutch Republic]] to help him achieve his goals. Although he was a powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the [[Day of the Dupes]] ({{langx|fr|link=no|Journée des Dupes}}) in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence.

An alumnus of the [[University of Paris]] and headmaster of the [[College of Sorbonne]], Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie Française]]|italic=no}}, the [[learned society]] responsible for matters pertaining to the [[French language]]. As an advocate for [[Samuel de Champlain]] and [[New France]], he founded (1627) the {{Lang|fr|[[Company of One Hundred Associates|Compagnie des Cent-Associés]]|italic=no}}; he also negotiated the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)|1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] under which [[Quebec City]] returned to French rule after [[Surrender of Quebec|English privateers took it]] in 1629. He was created [[Duke of Richelieu]] in 1629.

==Early life==
Born in Paris on 9 September 1585, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children and the last of three sons: he was delicate from childhood and suffered frequent bouts of ill-health throughout his life. His family belonged to the lesser nobility of [[Poitou]]:<ref>Bergin, pp. 14–15.</ref> his father, [[François du Plessis]], seigneur de [[Richelieu, Indre-et-Loire|Richelieu]], was a soldier and courtier who served as the Grand [[Prévôt|Provost]] of France,<ref>Treasure, p. 3.</ref> and his mother, Susanne de La Porte, was the daughter of a famous jurist.<ref>Bergin, pp. 18–19.</ref>

When he was five years old, Richelieu's father died of fever in the [[French Wars of Religion]],<ref>Bergin, p. 24.</ref> leaving the family in debt; however, with the aid of royal [[Grant (money)|grant]]s, the family was able to avoid financial difficulties. At the age of 9, young Richelieu was sent to the [[College of Navarre]] in Paris to study philosophy.<ref>Bergin, p. 55.</ref> Thereafter, he began to train for a military career.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 187.</ref> There, he learned mathematics, fencing, horse riding, dancing skills, courtly manners, and military drill.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Treasure |first=Geoffrey Russell Richards |url= |title=Cardinal Richelieu and the Development of Absolutism |date=1972 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-7136-1286-8 |pages=10 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Levi |first=Anthony |url= |title=Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France |date=2000 |publisher=Constable |isbn=978-0-09-480190-5 |pages=224 |language=en}}</ref> His private life seems to have been typical for a young officer of the era; in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by [[Théodore de Mayerne]] for [[gonorrhea]].<ref>Bergin, p. 58; Trevor-Roper, p. 66.</ref>

[[Henry III of France|Henry III]] had rewarded Richelieu's father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the [[Bishopric of Luçon]].<ref>Bergin, p. 57.</ref> The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use; they were, however, challenged by clergymen who desired the funds for [[ecclesiastical]] purposes. To protect the important source of revenue, Richelieu's mother proposed to make her second son, [[Alphonse-Louis du Plessis de Richelieu|Alphonse]], the bishop of Luçon.<ref name=autogenerated1>Bergin, p. 61.</ref> Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a [[Carthusian]] monk.<ref>Bergin, p. 62.</ref> Thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong academic interests and threw himself into studying for his new post.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Federn|first=Karl|title=Richelieu|publisher=Haskell House Publishers|year=1928|isbn=1432516361|location=New York|pages=57}}</ref>

In 1606, [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> As Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from [[Pope Paul V]]. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607. Soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a [[Counter-Reformation|reformer]].<ref>Munck, p. 43.</ref> He became the first bishop in France to implement the institutional reforms prescribed by the [[Council of Trent]] between 1545 and 1563.<ref>Bergin, pp. 132–133.</ref>

At about this time, Richelieu became a friend of [[François Leclerc du Tremblay]] (better known as "''Père Joseph''{{-"}} or "Father Joseph"), a [[Capuchin friar]], who would later become a close confidant. Because of his closeness to Richelieu, and the grey colour of his robes, Father Joseph was nicknamed ''[[L'éminence grise]]'' ({{lit|the Grey Eminence}}). Later, Richelieu often used him as an agent during diplomatic negotiations.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 189.</ref>

==Rise to power==
[[File:Louis XIII.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The young [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]], only a figurehead during his early reign, power actually resting with his mother, [[Marie de' Medici]]]]

In 1614, the clergymen of Poitou asked Richelieu to be one of their representatives to the [[Estates General (France)|Estates-General]].<ref>Bergin, p. 130.</ref> There, he was a vigorous advocate of the Catholic Church, arguing that it should be exempt from taxes and that bishops should have more political power. He was the most prominent clergyman to support the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout France;<ref>Bergin, p. 133.</ref> the Third Estate (commoners) was his chief opponent in this endeavour. At the end of the assembly, the First Estate (the clergy) chose him to deliver the address enumerating its petitions and decisions.<ref name=autogenerated5>Treasure, p. 4.</ref> Soon after the dissolution of the Estates-General, Richelieu entered the service of King [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]'s wife, [[Anne of Austria]], as her [[Grand Almoner of France|almoner]].<ref>Bergin, p. 135.</ref>

Richelieu advanced politically by faithfully serving the queen-mother's favourite, [[Concino Concini]], the most powerful minister in the kingdom.<ref>Pardoe, pp. 103–104.</ref> In 1616, Richelieu was made Secretary of State, and was given responsibility for foreign affairs.<ref name=autogenerated5 /> Like Concini, the Bishop was one of the closest advisors of Louis XIII's mother, [[Marie de' Medici]]. The queen had become Regent of France when the nine-year-old Louis ascended the throne; although her son reached the legal age of majority in 1614, she remained the effective ruler of the realm.<ref>Collins, p. 45.</ref> However, her policies, and those of Concini, proved unpopular with many in France. As a result, both Marie and Concini became the targets of intrigues at court; their most powerful enemy was [[Charles de Luynes]].<ref>Pardoe, p. 23.</ref> In April 1617, in a plot arranged by Luynes, Louis XIII ordered that Concini be arrested, and killed should he resist; Concini was consequently assassinated, and Marie de Médici overthrown.<ref name=autogenerated6>Parker, 1984, p. 130.</ref> His patron having died, Richelieu also lost power; he was dismissed as Secretary of State, and was removed from the court.<ref name=autogenerated6 /> In 1618, the king, still suspicious of the Bishop of Luçon, banished him to Avignon. There, Richelieu spent most of his time writing; he composed a [[catechism]] titled ''L'Instruction du chrétien''.<ref>Bergin, p. 99.</ref>

In 1619, Marie de Médici escaped from her confinement in the [[Château de Blois]], becoming the titular leader of an aristocratic rebellion. The king and the duc de Luynes recalled Richelieu, believing that he would be able to reason with the queen. Richelieu was successful in this endeavour, mediating between her and her son.<ref name=autogenerated4>Parker, 1984, p. 199.</ref> Complex negotiations bore fruit when the [[Treaty of Angoulême]] was ratified; Marie de Médici was given complete freedom, but would remain at peace with the king. The queen-mother was restored to the royal council.<ref name=":0" />

After the death of the king's favourite, the duc de Luynes, in 1621, Richelieu rose to power quickly. The year after, the king nominated Richelieu for a cardinalate, which [[Pope Gregory XV]] accordingly granted in September 1622.<ref name="Knecht2014">{{cite book|author=R J Knecht|title=Richelieu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-IkcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-87455-3|pages=16–|access-date=20 May 2018|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724095907/https://books.google.com/books?id=-IkcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref> Crises in France, including a rebellion of the [[Huguenots]], rendered Richelieu a nearly indispensable advisor to the king. After he was appointed to the royal council of ministers on 29 April 1624,<ref>Lodge & Ketcham, 1903, p. 85.</ref> he intrigued against the chief minister [[Charles de La Vieuville|Charles, duc de La Vieuville]].<ref name=autogenerated4 /> On 12 August of the same year, La Vieuville was arrested on charges of corruption, and Cardinal Richelieu took his place as the king's principal minister the following day, but the [[François de La Rochefoucauld (cardinal)|Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld]] nominally remained president of the council (Richelieu was officially appointed president in November 1629).<ref>Dyer, 1861, p. 525.</ref>

==Chief minister==
[[File:Jean Warin, Armand-Jean du Plessis, 1585-1642, Cardinal de Richelieu 1622 (obverse), 1631, NGA 45335.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|Jean Warin, Cardinal de Richelieu 1622 (obverse), 1631]]

Cardinal Richelieu's policy involved two primary goals: [[centralized government|centralization of power]] in France<ref>Zagorin, p. 9.</ref> and opposition to the [[Habsburg dynasty]] (which ruled in both Austria and Spain).<ref>Wedgwood, p. 188.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis de {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/richelieu-armand-jean-du-plessis-de |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> He saw the reestablishment of the Catholic orthodoxy as a political maneuver of the Habsburg and Austrian states which was detrimental to the French national interests.<ref>Kissinger, p. 59</ref>

Shortly after he became Louis' principal minister, he was faced with a [[Treaty of Monçon#Background|crisis]] in [[Valtellina]], a valley in Lombardy (northern Italy). To counter Spanish designs on the territory, Richelieu supported the Protestant [[Three Leagues|Swiss canton of Grisons]], which also claimed the strategically important valley. The cardinal deployed troops to Valtellina, from which the pope's garrisons were driven out.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 195.</ref> Richelieu's early decision to support a Protestant canton against the pope was a foretaste of the purely diplomatic power politics he espoused in his foreign policy.

To further consolidate power in France, Richelieu sought to suppress the influence of the [[feudalism|feudal]] nobility. In 1626, he abolished the position of [[Constable of France]] and ordered all fortified castles razed, with the exception only of those needed to defend against invaders.<ref>Collins, p. 48.</ref> Thus he stripped the princes, dukes, and lesser aristocrats of important defences that could have been used against the king's armies during rebellions. As a result, Richelieu was hated by most of the nobility.

[[File:Siege of La Rochelle 1881 Henri Motte.png|thumb|left|[[Henri Motte]]'s depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the [[siege of La Rochelle]].]]

Another obstacle to the centralization of power was religious division in France. The [[Huguenot]]s, one of the largest political and religious factions in the country, controlled a significant military force, and were in rebellion.<ref>Zagorin, p. 16.</ref> Moreover, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], the king of England, declared war on France in an attempt to aid the Huguenot faction. In 1627, Richelieu ordered the army to besiege the Huguenot stronghold of [[Siege of La Rochelle|La Rochelle]]; the cardinal personally commanded the besieging troops.<ref>Zagorin, p. 17.</ref> English troops under the [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham|Duke of Buckingham]] led an expedition to help the citizens of La Rochelle, but failed abysmally. The city, however, remained firm for over a year before capitulating in 1628.

Although the Huguenots suffered a major defeat at La Rochelle, they continued to fight, led by [[Henri, duc de Rohan]]. Protestant forces, however, were defeated in 1629; Rohan submitted to the terms of the [[Peace of Alais]].<ref name="Zagorin, p. 18">Zagorin, p. 18.</ref> As a result, religious toleration for Protestants, which had first been granted by the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1598, was permitted to continue, but the cardinal abolished their political rights and protections.<ref name="Zagorin, p. 18"/> Rohan was not executed (as were leaders of rebellions later in Richelieu's tenure); in fact, he later became a commanding officer in the French army.

[[File:Peter Paul Rubens 095b.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|On the "Day of the Dupes" in 1630, it appeared that Marie de Médici had secured Richelieu's dismissal. Richelieu, however, survived the scheme, and Marie was exiled as a result.]]

Habsburg Spain exploited the French conflict with the Huguenots to extend its influence in northern Italy. It funded the Huguenot rebels to keep the French army occupied, meanwhile expanding its Italian dominions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle capitulated, he personally led the French army to northern Italy to restrain Spain. On 26 November 1629, he was created [[duc de Richelieu]] and a [[Peerage of France|Peer of France]]. In the next year, Richelieu's position was seriously threatened by his former patron, Marie de Médici. Marie believed that the cardinal had robbed her of her political influence; thus, she demanded that her son dismiss the chief minister.<ref>Pardoe, p. 176.</ref> Louis XIII was not, at first, averse to such a course of action, as he personally disliked Richelieu.<ref name=autogenerated5 /> Despite this, the persuasive statesman was able to secure the king as an ally against his own mother. On 11 November 1630, Marie de Médici's and the king's brother, [[Gaston, Duke of Orléans|Gaston, duc d'Orléans]], secured the king's agreement for the dismissal. Richelieu, however, was aware of the plan, and quickly convinced the king to repent.<ref>Munck, p. 44.</ref>

Meanwhile, Marie de Médici was exiled to [[Compiègne]]. Both Marie and the duc d'Orléans continued to conspire against Richelieu, but their schemes came to nothing. The nobility also remained powerless. The only important rising was that of [[Henri II de Montmorency|Henri, duc de Montmorency]] in 1632; Richelieu, ruthless in suppressing opposition, ordered the duke's execution. In 1634, the cardinal had one of his outspoken critics, [[Urbain Grandier]], [[execution by burning|burned at the stake]] in the [[Loudun possessions|Loudun affair]]. These and other harsh measures were orchestrated by Richelieu to intimidate his enemies. He also ensured his political security by establishing a large network of spies in France and in other European countries.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

==Thirty Years' War==
[[File:Cardinal Richelieu by Robert Nanteuil 1657.jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Cardinal Richelieu by [[Robert Nanteuil]]]]

Before Richelieu's ascent to power, most of Europe had become enmeshed in the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648). France was not openly at war with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]], who ruled Spain and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], so subsidies and aid were provided secretly to their adversaries.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 270.</ref> Richelieu however, believed that war against Spain would be unavoidable.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/armand-jean-du-plessis-de-richelieu |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Sir Richard |url= |title=The Life of Cardinal Richelieu |date=1903 |publisher=A. L. Burt Company |pages=195 |language=en}}</ref> He considered the [[Dutch Republic]] as one of France's most important allies, for it bordered directly with the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and was right in the middle of the [[Eighty Years' War]] with Spain at that time. Luckily for him, Richelieu was a ''bon français'', just like the king, who had already decided to subsidize the Dutch to fight against the Spanish via the [[Treaty of Compiègne (1624)|Treaty of Compiègne]] in June 1624, prior to Richelieu's appointment to First Minister in August.<ref>A. Lloyd Moote, ''Louis XIII, the Just'', pp. 135–136, 178. {{full|date=August 2022}}</ref> That same year, a military expedition, secretly financed by France and commanded by Marquis de Coeuvres, started an action with the intention of liberating the [[Valtelline]] from Spanish occupation. In 1625, Richelieu also sent money to [[Ernst von Mansfeld]], a famous mercenary general operating in Germany in English service. However, in May 1626, when war costs had almost ruined France, king and cardinal made peace with Spain via the [[Treaty of Monçon]].<ref>Moote, pp. 179–183, esp. 182</ref> This peace quickly ended after tensions due to the [[War of the Mantuan Succession]].<ref>Wedgwood, p. 247.</ref>

In 1629, Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] subjugated many of his Protestant opponents in Germany. Richelieu, alarmed by Ferdinand's growing influence, incited Sweden to intervene, providing money.<ref name=autogenerated3>Parker, 1984, p. 219.</ref> In the meantime, France and Spain remained hostile due to Spain's ambitions in northern Italy. At that time northern Italy was a major strategic region in Europe's balance of power, serving as a link between the Habsburgs in the Empire and in Spain. Had the imperial armies dominated this region, France would have been threatened by Habsburg encirclement. Spain was meanwhile seeking papal approval for a [[universal monarchy]]. When in 1630 French diplomats in [[Regensburg]] agreed to make peace with Spain, Richelieu refused to support them. The agreement would have prohibited French interference in Germany. Therefore, Richelieu advised Louis XIII to refuse to ratify the treaty. In 1631, he allied France to Sweden, which had [[Treaty of Stettin (1630)|just invaded the empire]], in the [[Treaty of Bärwalde]].<ref name=autogenerated3 />

Military expenses placed a considerable strain on royal revenues. In response, Richelieu raised the ''[[gabelle]]'' (salt tax) and the ''[[taille]]'' (land tax).<ref>Collins, p. 62.</ref> The ''taille'' was enforced to provide funds to raise armies and wage war. The clergy, nobility, and high [[bourgeoisie]] either were exempt or could easily avoid payment, so the burden fell on the poorest segment of the nation. To collect taxes more efficiently, and to keep corruption to a minimum, Richelieu bypassed local tax officials, replacing them with ''[[intendant]]s'' (officials in the direct service of the Crown).<ref>Collins, p. 53.</ref> Richelieu's financial scheme, however, caused unrest among the peasants; there were several uprisings in 1636 to 1639.<ref>Munck, p. 48.</ref> Richelieu crushed the revolts violently, and dealt with the rebels harshly.<ref>Zagorin, pp. 8–12.</ref>

[[File:Battle of Lens.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|The Battle of Lens]]

Because he openly aligned France with Protestant powers, Richelieu was denounced by many as a traitor to the Roman Catholic Church. (He ordered ships of war from [[Jan Bicker|Jean Bicker]].<ref>[https://archief.amsterdam/indexen/persons?ss=%7B%22q%22:%22%5C%22Jean%20Bicker%5C%22%22%7D&sort=%7B%22order_i_datum%22:%22asc%22%7D Amsterdam City Archive]</ref>) Military action, at first, was disastrous for the French, with many victories going to Spain and the Empire.<ref>Wedgwood, p. 452.</ref> Neither side, however, could obtain a decisive advantage, and the conflict lingered on after Richelieu's death. Richelieu was instrumental in redirecting the Thirty Years' War from the conflict of Protestantism versus Catholicism to that of nationalism versus Habsburg hegemony.<ref>Henry Bertram Hill, ''Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu'', p. vii, supports general thesis.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergin |first=Joseph |url= |title=Cardinal Richelieu: Power and the Pursuit of Wealth |date=1985 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-03495-0 |language=en}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2023}} In this conflict France effectively drained the already overstretched resources of the Habsburg empire and drove it inexorably towards bankruptcy.<ref name=autogenerated2>Wedgwood, p. 450.</ref> The defeat of Habsburg forces at the [[Battle of Lens]] in 1648, coupled with their failure to prevent a French invasion of [[Catalonia]], effectively spelled the end for Habsburg domination of the continent, and for the personal career of Spanish prime minister [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares|Olivares]].<ref name=autogenerated2 />

==New World==
When Richelieu came to power, [[New France]], where the French had a foothold since [[Jacques Cartier]], had no more than 100 permanent European inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98|title=Cercle Richelieu Senghor de Paris – Tribune internationale de la francophonie|website=www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org|access-date=10 September 2014|archive-date=30 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030221945/http://www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98|url-status=live}}</ref> Richelieu encouraged Louis XIII to colonize the Americas by the foundation of the ''[[Company of One Hundred Associates|Compagnie de la Nouvelle France]]'' in imitation of the [[Dutch West India Company]]. Unlike the other colonial powers, France encouraged a peaceful coexistence in New France between natives and colonists and sought the integration of Indians into colonial society.<ref>"Le grand atout de la France est d’avoir mis en place des conditions favorisant les établissements stables, grâce aux alliances avec les peuples autochtones." Cercle Richelieu [http://www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030221945/http://www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98|date=30 October 2014}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2019}}<ref>Kenneth M. Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: The Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations, 1984, p. 94 [https://archive.org/details/embattlednorthea00kenn/page/94 <!-- quote=richelieu integration indians. -->]</ref> [[Samuel de Champlain]], governor of New France at the time of Richelieu, saw intermarriage between French and Indians as a solution to increase population in its colony.<ref>Roger L. Nichols, Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History, 1999, p. 32 [https://books.google.com/books?id=xDptolIJzuMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511211323/https://books.google.com/books/about/Indians_in_the_United_States_and_Canada.html?id=xDptolIJzuMC&redir_esc=y|date=11 May 2016}}</ref> Under the guidance of Richelieu, Louis XIII issued the [[Ordonnance]] of 1627 by which the Indians, converted to Catholicism, were considered as "natural Frenchmen":

{{blockquote|The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take letters of declaration of naturalization.<ref>Acte pour l'établissement de la Compagnie des Cent Associés pour le commerce du Canada, contenant les articles accordés à la dite Compagnie par M. le Cardinal de Richelieu, le 29 avril 1627 [http://notrehistoire.net/textes_histoire_droit/CN_Memoire.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821130904/http://notrehistoire.net/textes_histoire_droit/CN_Memoire.pdf |date=21 August 2016 }}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

The [[1666 census of New France]], conducted some 20 years after the death of Cardinal Richelieu, showed a population of 3,215 ''habitants'' in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181).<ref name = Talon>{{cite web|title= Statistics for the 1666 Census|url= http://amicus.collectionscanada.gc.ca/aaweb-bin/aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=999999999_142&l=0&d=2&v=0&lvl=1&itm=30327415|publisher= Library and Archives Canada|year= 2006|access-date= 24 June 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150904053654/http://amicus.collectionscanada.gc.ca/aaweb-bin/aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=999999999_142&l=0&d=2&v=0&lvl=1&itm=30327415|archive-date= 4 September 2015|url-status= dead}}</ref>

==Final years==
[[File:Cardinal Mazarin by Pierre Mignard (Musée Condé).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Cardinal Mazarin]] (depicted here in 1660, age 58) succeeded Richelieu in office.]]

Toward the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including [[Pope Urban VIII]]. Richelieu was displeased by the pope's refusal to name him the [[papal legate]] in France;<ref>Perkins, p. 273.</ref> in turn, the pope did not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy. However, the conflict was largely resolved when the pope granted a cardinalate to [[Jules Mazarin]], one of Richelieu's main political allies, in 1641. Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu did not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as was advocated by the [[Gallicanism|Gallicanists]].<ref>Phillips, p. 3.</ref>

[[File:Cardinal-Richelieu-On-His-Deathbed.jpg|thumb|left|Painting by [[Philippe de Champaigne]] showing Cardinal Richelieu on his deathbed]]

As he neared death, Richelieu faced a plot that threatened to remove him from power. The cardinal had introduced a young man named [[Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, Marquis of Cinq-Mars|Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, marquis de Cinq-Mars]] to Louis XIII's court.<ref name=autogenerated7>Perkins, p. 195.</ref> The cardinal had been a friend of Cinq-Mars's father.<ref name=autogenerated7 /> More importantly, Richelieu hoped that Cinq-Mars would become Louis's favourite, so that he could indirectly exercise greater influence over the monarch's decisions. Cinq-Mars had become the royal favourite by 1639, but, contrary to Cardinal Richelieu's belief, he was not easy to control. The young marquis realized that Richelieu would not permit him to gain political power.<ref>Perkins, p. 198.</ref> In 1641, he participated in the [[Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons|comte de Soissons]]'s failed conspiracy against Richelieu, but was not discovered.<ref>Perkins, p. 191.</ref> Then, the following year, he schemed with leading nobles (including the king's brother, the duc d'Orléans) to raise a rebellion; he also signed a secret agreement with the king of Spain, who promised to aid the rebels.<ref>Perkins, p. 200.</ref> Richelieu's spy service, however, discovered the plot, and the cardinal received a copy of the treaty.<ref>Perkins, p. 204.</ref> Cinq-Mars was promptly arrested and executed; although Louis approved the use of capital punishment, he grew more distant from Richelieu as a result.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

However, Richelieu was now dying. For many years he had suffered from recurrent fevers (possibly malaria), strangury, intestinal tuberculosis with fistula, and migraine. Now his right arm was suppurating with tubercular osteitis, and he coughed blood (after his death, his lungs were found to have extensive cavities and caseous necrosis). His doctors continued to [[bloodletting|bleed]] him frequently, further weakening him.<ref>Cabanès, "Le Medecin de Richelieu", pp. 16–43, for a full account of his medical history.</ref> As he felt his death approaching, he named Mazarin, one of his most faithful followers, to succeed him as chief minister to the king.<ref>Treasure, p. 8.</ref>

Richelieu died on 4 December 1642, aged 57. His body was embalmed and interred at the church of the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. By that time, the populace detested him. In many provinces of the kingdom, bonfires were kindled to celebrate his death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Sir Richard |url= |title=The Life of Cardinal Richelieu |date=1903 |publisher=A. L. Burt Company |pages=322 |language=en}}</ref> During the [[French Revolution]], the corpse was removed from its tomb, and the mummified front of his head, having been removed and replaced during the original embalming process, was stolen. It ended up in the possession of Nicholas Armez of Brittany by 1796, and he occasionally exhibited the well-preserved face. His nephew, Louis-Philippe Armez, inherited it and also occasionally exhibited it and lent it out for study. In 1866, [[Napoleon III]] persuaded Armez to return the face to the government for re-interment with the rest of Richelieu's body. An investigation of subsidence of the church floor enabled the head to be photographed in 1895.<ref>Fontaine de Resbecq (pp. 11–18); Cabanès, "L'Odyssée d'un Crane"; Murphy, 1995.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmc=1692471 |title=A Photograph of the Head of Cardinal Richelieu Taken Two Hundred and Fifty Years After Death |journal=Medical Library and Historical Journal |year=1906 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=184–185 |pmid=18340911|last1=Griffith |first1=F }}</ref>

==Arts and culture==
[[File:Triple Portrait of Cardinal de Richelieu probably 1642, Philippe de Champaigne.jpg|thumb|''[[Triple Portrait of Cardinal de Richelieu]]'', by [[Philippe de Champaigne]] (c. 1642)]]
Richelieu was a [[chess|chess player]]<ref>{{Cite book |url= |title=Routledge's Every Boy's Annual |year=1877 |pages=341 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=George |url= |title=Chess and Chess-players: Consisting of Original Stories and Sketches |date=1850 |publisher=C.J. Skeet |pages=107 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reinfeld |first=Fred |url= |title=Great Moments in Chess |date=1963 |publisher=Pitman |isbn=978-0-8128-2187-1 |pages=19 |language=en}}</ref> and a famous patron of the arts. An author of various religious and political works (most notably his ''Political Testament''), he sent his agents abroad<ref>Jacques Gaffrel in Italy and Jean Tileman Stella in Germany – Bonnaffé p. 13.</ref> in search of books and manuscripts for his unrivaled library, which he specified in his will – leaving it to [[Armand Jean de Vignerot du Plessis]], his great-nephew, fully funded – should serve not merely his family but to be open at fixed hours to scholars. The manuscripts alone numbered some 900, bound as codices in red Morocco with the cardinal's arms. The library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1660.<ref>Bonnaffé, pp. 4, 12.</ref> He funded the literary careers of many writers. He was a lover of the theatre, which was not considered a respectable art form during that era; a private theatre, the [[Théâtre du Palais-Royal (rue Saint-Honoré)|Grande Salle]], was a feature of his Paris residence, the [[Palais-Cardinal]]. Among the individuals he patronized was the famous playwright [[Pierre Corneille]].<ref>Auchincloss, p. 178.</ref> Richelieu was also the founder and patron of the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}}, the pre-eminent French literary society.<ref>Elliot, 1991, p. 30.</ref> The institution had previously been in informal existence; in 1635, however, Cardinal Richelieu obtained official [[letters patent]] for the body. The {{Lang|fr|Académie française|italic=no}} includes 40 members, promotes French literature, and remains the official authority on the French language. Richelieu served as the Académie's ''protector''. Since 1672, that role has been fulfilled by the French head of state.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

In 1622, Richelieu was elected the ''proviseur'' or principal of the Sorbonne.<ref>Pitte, p. 33.</ref> He presided over the renovation of the college's buildings and over the construction of its famous chapel, where he is now entombed. As he was Bishop of Luçon, his statue stands outside the Luçon cathedral.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}[[File:Portrait of the cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) of Bernini.JPG|thumb|upright=.8|Bust of Cardinal Richelieu by Gianlorenzo Bernini|left|212x212px]]

Richelieu oversaw the construction of his own palace in Paris, the [[Palais Royal|Palais-Cardinal]].<ref>Alexander, 1996, p. 20.</ref> The palace, renamed the Palais-Royal after Richelieu's death, now houses the [[Constitutional Council of France|French Constitutional Council]], the Ministry of Culture, and the [[Council of State (France)|Conseil d'État]]. The ''Galerie de l'avant-cour'' had ceiling paintings by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], the cardinal's chief portraitist, celebrating the major events of the cardinal's career; the ''Galerie des hommes illustres'' had twenty-six historicizing [[De viris illustribus|portraits of great men]], larger than life, from [[Abbot Suger]] to Louis XIII; some were by [[Simon Vouet]], others were careful copies by Philippe de Champaigne from known portraits;<ref>Bonnaffé :7ff (notes other portrait galleries assembled by Richelieu's contemporaries), pp. 10ff.</ref> with them were busts of Roman emperors. Another series of portraits of authors complemented the library. The architect of the Palais-Cardinal, [[Jacques Lemercier]], also received a commission to build a château and a surrounding town in [[Indre-et-Loire]]; the project culminated in the construction of the [[Château Richelieu]] and the [[Richelieu, Indre-et-Loire|town of Richelieu]]. To the château, he added one of the largest art collections in Europe and the largest collection of [[ancient Roman sculpture]] in France. The heavily resurfaced and restored ''Richelieu Bacchus'' continued to be admired by [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical artists]].<ref>The young [[Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres]] made a careful drawing of it.</ref> Among his 300 paintings by moderns, most notably, he owned [[Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo]]'s ''[[The Virgin and Child with St. Anne (Leonardo da Vinci)|Virgin and Child with Saint Anne]]'', ''The Family of the Virgin'' by [[Andrea del Sarto]], the two famous ''Bacchanales'' of [[Nicolas Poussin]], as well as paintings by [[Paolo Veronese|Veronese]] and [[Titian]], and ''Diana at the Bath'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], for which he was so glad to pay the artist's heirs 3,000 ''écus'', that he made a gift to Rubens' widow of a diamond-encrusted watch. His marble [[Bust of Cardinal Richilieu (Bernini)|portrait bust by Bernini]] was not considered a good likeness and was banished to a passageway.<ref>"''Le petit cabinet de passage pour aller à l'appartement vert''" (Bonnaffé :10).</ref>

The fittings of his chapel in the Palais-Cardinal, for which Simon Vouet executed the paintings, were of solid gold – crucifix, chalice, [[paten]], ciborium, candlesticks – set with 180 rubies and 9,000 diamonds.<ref>Bonnaffé :16</ref> His taste also ran to massive silver, small bronzes and works of ''[[Vertu (collections)|vertu]]'', enamels and rock crystal mounted in gold, Chinese porcelains, tapestries and Persian carpets, cabinets from Italy, and Antwerp and the heart-shaped diamond bought from Alphonse Lopez that he willed to the king. When the Palais-Cardinal was complete, he donated it to the Crown, in 1636. With the queen in residence, the paintings of the ''Grand Cabinet'' were transferred to Fontainebleau and replaced by copies, and the interiors were subjected to much rearrangement.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

[[Michelangelo]]'s two ''Slaves'' were among the rich appointments of the château Richelieu, where there were the Nativity triptych by [[Dürer]], and paintings by [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]], [[Lorenzo Costa]] and [[Perugino]], lifted from the [[House of Gonzaga|Gonzaga]] collection at Mantua by French military forces in 1630, as well as numerous antiquities.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

==Legacy==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Cardinal de Richelieu.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], {{circa|1633–1640}}]]

Richelieu's tenure was a crucial period of reform for France. Earlier, the nation's political structure was largely [[Feudalism|feudal]], with powerful nobles and a wide variety of laws in different regions.<ref>Collins, p. 1.</ref> Parts of the nobility periodically conspired against the king, raised private armies, and allied themselves with foreign powers. This system gave way to centralized power under Richelieu.<ref>Collins, p. 1{{snd}}although Collin does note that this can be exaggerated.</ref> Local and even religious interests were subordinated to those of the whole nation, and of the embodiment of the nation – the king. Equally critical for France was Richelieu's foreign policy, which helped restrain Habsburg influence in Europe. Richelieu did not survive to the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the conflict ended in 1648, with France emerging in a far better position than any other power, and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] entering a period of decline.

Richelieu's successes were extremely important to Louis XIII's successor, King [[Louis XIV]]. He continued Richelieu's work of creating an [[absolute monarchy]]; in the same vein as the cardinal, he enacted policies that further suppressed the once-mighty aristocracy, and utterly destroyed all remnants of Huguenot political power with the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]]. Moreover, Louis took advantage of his nation's success during the Thirty Years' War to establish French [[hegemony]] in continental Europe. Thus, Richelieu's policies were the requisite prelude to Louis XIV becoming the most powerful monarch, and France the most powerful nation, in all of Europe during the late seventeenth century.[[File:Dionysos Louvre Ma87 n2.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|The ''Richelieu Bacchus'' continued to be admired by [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical artists]], ([[Louvre Museum]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=22021 |title=Louvre Museum |publisher=Cartelen.louvre.fr |access-date=14 October 2010 |archive-date=7 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607032850/http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=22021 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]Richelieu is also notable for the authoritarian measures he employed to maintain power. He censored the press,<ref>Phillips, p. 266.</ref> established a large network of internal spies, forbade the discussion of political matters in public assemblies such as the [[Parlement]] de Paris (a court of justice), and had those who dared to conspire against him prosecuted and executed. The Canadian historian and philosopher [[John Ralston Saul]] has referred to Richelieu as the "father of the modern [[nation-state]], modern centralised power [and] the modern [[secret service]]."

His legacy is also important for the world at large; his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. As a statesman and churchman, Richelieu played an important role in shaping France's prominence in the 17th century and influencing the secularization of international policies during the Thirty Years' War.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armand-Jean du Plessis, cardinal et duc de Richelieu {{!}} French Statesman, Cardinal & Politician {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Armand-Jean-du-Plessis-cardinal-et-duc-de-Richelieu |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

His pioneering approach to French diplomatic relations using ''raison d'etat'' vis-a-vis the power relationship at play were first frowned upon but later emulated by other European nation-states to add to their diplomatic strategic arsenal.<ref>Kissinger, pp. 62–63</ref>

A less renowned aspect of his legacy is his involvement with [[Samuel de Champlain]] and the fledgling colony along the [[St. Lawrence River]]. The retention and promotion of [[Canada (New France)|Canada]] under Richelieu allowed it – and through the settlement's strategic location, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes gateway into the North American interior – to develop into a French empire in North America, parts of which eventually became modern Canada and Louisiana.

Richelieu is known as the inventor of the [[table knife]]. Annoyed by the bad manners that were commonly displayed at the dining table by users of sharp knives (who would often use them to pick their teeth),<ref>{{cite book |last=Downie |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aX1EDgAAQBAJ |title=A Taste of Paris: A History of the Parisian Love Affair with Food |date=2017 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-25-008295-4 |location=New York |page=93 |quote=In Richelieu's day it was common for everyone, especially the quarrelsome menfolk, not merely to disdain the forks and napkins bequeathed by Henri III, but to pick their teeth at table with their knives – or stab tablemates. Richelieu abhorred coarseness and petty violence, especially if it stained his table linens. |access-date=23 June 2023}}</ref> in 1637 Richelieu ordered that all of the knives on his dining table have their blades dulled and their tips rounded. The design quickly became popular throughout France and later spread to other countries.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Long |first1=Tony |title=May 13, 1637: Cardinal Richelieu Makes His Point |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/05/0513cardinal-richelieu-invents-table-knife/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515193958/https://www.wired.com/2011/05/0513cardinal-richelieu-invents-table-knife/ |archive-date=15 May 2022 |access-date=14 April 2022 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

==Portrayals in fiction==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
[[File:The State Barge of Cardinal Richelieu on the Rhône.png|thumb|''[[The State Barge of Cardinal Richelieu on the Rhône]]'' by [[Paul Delaroche]], 1829]]
As of April 2013, the Internet Movie Database listed 94 films and television programs in which Cardinal Richelieu is a character. Actors who have portrayed Cardinal Richelieu on film and television include [[Nigel De Brulier]], [[George Arliss]], [[Miles Mander]], [[Vincent Price]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[Aleksandr Trofimov (actor)|Aleksandr Trofimov]], [[Tcheky Karyo]], [[Stephen Rea]], [[Tim Curry]], [[Christoph Waltz]] and [[Peter Capaldi]].

Richelieu is one of the clergymen more frequently portrayed in film, notably as the lead villain in [[Alexandre Dumas]]'s 1844 novel ''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' and its [[The Three Musketeers in film|numerous film adaptations]]. He is usually portrayed as a sinister character, but the 1950 ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (1950 film)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'' shows Richelieu (played by [[Edgar Barrier]] in a scene not from Rostand's original [[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|verse drama]]) as compassionate to Cyrano's financial plight, and playfully having enjoyed the duel at the theatre.

Richelieu is indirectly mentioned in a famous line of [[Alessandro Manzoni]]'s novel ''[[The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)|The Betrothed]]'' (1827–1840), set in 1628, as a Lombard peasant expresses his own conspiracy theories about the bread riots happening in Milan. The 1839 play ''[[Richelieu (play)|Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy]]'' by [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] portrayed Richelieu uttering the now famous line "[[The pen is mightier than the sword]]." The play was adapted into the 1935 film ''[[Cardinal Richelieu (film)|Cardinal Richelieu]]''.

Richelieu and Louis XIII are depicted in Ken Russell's 1971 film ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]''. The ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' episode "How to Recognise Different Types of Trees from Quite a Long Way Away", first released in 1969, features the sketch "Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu", in which Richelieu (played by [[Michael Palin]]) possesses the casual and somewhat smarmy demeanor of a master of ceremonies.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/dLplQWB2S_8 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100730115242/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=dLplQWB2S_8 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |author=Chadner |date=22 December 2006 |title=Monty Python – Court Scene |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLplQWB2S_8 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Richelieu is a minor and eventually a major character in the ''[[Fortune de France]]'' novel series (published between 1977 and 2003) by [[Robert Merle]]. Also, in the 21st century [[1632 series|''1632/Ring of Fire'']] alternative history series by Eric Flint, he is one of the primary antagonists to the nascent United States of Europe.

==Literary works==
* ''Political Testament''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richelieu |first=Armand Jean du Plessis |url=http://archive.org/details/politicaltestame0000rich_d9j0 |title=Political testament |date=1961 |publisher=Madison : University of Wisconsin Press |others=Internet Archive}}</ref>
* ''The principal points of the faith of the Catholic Church defended'' (1635)<ref>{{Cite book |last=de |first=Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis duc |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL18472731M/The_principall_points_of_the_faith_of_the_Catholike_Church |title=The principall points of the faith of the Catholike Church: Defended against a writing sent to the king by the 4. ministers of Charenton. By the most eminent. Armand Ihon de Plessis Cardinal Duke de Richelieu. Englished by M.C. confessor to the English nuns at Paris. |date=1635 |publisher=By Sebastien Cramoisy, printer to the king |location=At Paris|ol=18472731M }}</ref>
* ''Mémoires du cardinal de Richelieu, sur le règne de Louis XIII''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richelieu |first=Armand Jean du Plessis |url= |title=Mémoires du cardinal de Richelieu, sur le règne de Louis XIII |date=1823 |publisher=Paris : Foucault |others=Oxford University}}</ref>

==Honours==
[[File:Richelieu, parc.jpg|thumb|The Parc de Richelieu at [[Richelieu, Indre-et-Loire]]]]

Many sites and landmarks were named to honor Cardinal Richelieu. They include:<ref name=":0">Carl J. Burckhardt, ''Richelieu and His Age'' (1967). Vol. 3, appendix.</ref>

* [[Richelieu, Indre-et-Loire|Richelieu]], Indre et Loire, a town founded by the cardinal
* Avenue Richelieu, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada
* The provincial electoral district of [[Richelieu (provincial electoral district)|Richelieu]], Quebec
* Richelieu River, in Montérégie, Quebec
* [[Richelieu Squadron]], a squadron of Officer Cadets from the [[Royal Military College Saint-Jean]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Departement of National Defence|first=Chief Military Personnel|date=2015-05-27|title=Officer Cadet Division – Faculty and Staff – Royal Military College Saint-Jean|url=https://www.cmrsj-rmcsj.forces.gc.ca/cp-fs/deo-ocd/deo-ocd-eng.asp|access-date=2021-08-27|website=www.cmrsj-rmcsj.forces.gc.ca|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827172020/https://www.cmrsj-rmcsj.forces.gc.ca/cp-fs/deo-ocd/deo-ocd-eng.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
* A wing of the [[Louvre Museum]], Paris, France
* A brandy in the Republic of South Africa.<ref>https://www.richelieu.co.za/</ref>
* [[Rue de Richelieu]], a Parisian street named in the cardinal's honor, and places located in this street, as the [[Paris Métro]] station [[Richelieu - Drouot (Paris Métro)|Richelieu-Drouot]], or the historical site of the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]
* [[French ship Richelieu]], four warships of the French Navy

There is also an ornate style of lace, Richelieu lace, named in honor of the cardinal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trc-leiden.nl/trc-needles/regional-traditions/europe-and-north-america/embroideries/richelieu-work|title=Richelieu Work|last=Willem|website=www.trc-leiden.nl|language=en-gb|access-date=14 October 2019|archive-date=14 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014163428/https://www.trc-leiden.nl/trc-needles/regional-traditions/europe-and-north-america/embroideries/richelieu-work|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[Chalais conspiracy]]
* [[Nicolas Fouquet]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|24em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=y}}
* Alexander, Edward Porter. ''Museums in Motion: an introduction to the history and functions of museums.'' Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. (1996)
* Auchincloss, Louis. ''Richelieu.'' Viking Press. (1972)
* Bergin, Joseph. ''The Rise of Richelieu.'' Manchester: Manchester University Press. (1997)
* Blanchard, Jean-Vincent. ''Eminence: Cardinal Richelieu and the Rise of France'' (Walker & Company; 2011) 309 pages; a biography
* Bonnaffé, Edmond. ''Recherches sur les collections des Richelieu.'' Plon. (1883) (''French'')
* Cabanès, Augustin. "Le Médecin de Richelieu – La Maladie du Cardinal" and "L'Odyssée d'un Crane – La Tête du Cardinal", [https://archive.org/details/lecabinetsecretd04cabauoft ''Le Cabinet Secret de l'Histoire, 4e serie].'' Paris: Dorbon Ainé. (1905) (''French'')
* Collins, James B. ''The State in Early Modern France.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995)
* Dyer, Thomas Henry. ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QUE-AAAAYAAJ The history of modern Europe from the fall of Constantinople: in 1453, to the war in the Crimea, in 1857]''. J. Murray. (1861)
* Elliott, J. H. ''Richelieu and Olivares.'' Cambridge: Canto Press. (1991)
* Fontaine de Resbecq, Eugène de. ''Les Tombeaux des Richelieu à la Sorbonne, par un membre de la Société d'archéologie de Seine-et-Marne.'' Paris: Ernest Thorin. (1867) (''French'')
* Lodge, Sir Richard, and Ketcham, Henry. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3h-yAAAAIAAJ The life of Cardinal Richelieu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331084209/https://books.google.com/books?id=3h-yAAAAIAAJ |date=31 March 2020 }}''. [[A.L. Burt]]. (1903)
* Munck, Thomas. ''Seventeenth Century Europe, 1598–1700.'' London: Macmillan. (1990)
* Pardoe, Julia. ''The Life of Marie {{As written|de Medici}}, volume 3''. Colburn (1852); BiblioBazaar reprint (2006)
* Parker, Geoffrey. ''Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648.'' London: Fontana. (1984)
* Perkins, James Breck. ''Richelieu and the Growth of French Power.'' Ayer Publishing. (1971)
* Phillips, Henry. ''Church and Culture in Seventeenth Century France.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1997)
* Pitte, Jean-Robert. ''La Sorbonne au service des humanités: 750 ans de création et de transmission du savoir, 1257–2007.'' Paris: Presses Paris Sorbonne. (2007) (''French'')
* Treasure, Geoffrey. ''Richelieu and Mazarin.'' London: Routledge. (1998)
* Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald. [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300112634 ''Europe's physician: the various life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne'']. Yale: Yale University Press. (2006) {{ISBN|978-0-300-11263-4}}
* Wedgwood, C. V. ''The Thirty Years' War.'' London: Methuen. (1981)
* Zagorin, Perez. ''Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660. Volume II: Provincial rebellion: Revolutionary civil wars, 1560–1660.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1992)
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Belloc
| first = Hilaire
| year = 1929
| title = Richelieu: A Study
| location = London
| publisher = J. B. Lippincott
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Burckhardt
| first = Carl J.
| year = 1967
| title = Richelieu and His Age (3 volumes)
| others = trans. Bernard Hoy
| location = New York
| publisher = Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Church
| first = William F.
| year = 1972
| title = Richelieu and Reason of State
| url = https://archive.org/details/richelieureasono0000chur
| url-access = registration
| location = Princeton
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| isbn = 978-0691051994
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kissinger
| first = Henry
| year = 1997
| title = Diplomacy
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Levi
| first = Anthony
| year = 2000
| title = Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France
| location = New York
| publisher = Carroll and Graf
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lodge 
| first = Sir Richard
| year = 1896
| title = Richelieu
| location = London
| url=https://archive.org/details/richelieu00lodgiala
| publisher = Macmillan
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Murphy
| first = Edwin
| year = 1995
| title = After the Funeral: The Posthumous Adventures of Famous Corpses
| location = New York
| publisher = Barnes and Noble Books
}}
* {{cite book
| last = O'Connell
| first = D.P.
| year = 1968
| title = Richelieu
| url = https://archive.org/details/richelieu00ocon
| url-access = registration
| location = New York
| publisher = The World Publishing Company
}}
*Rehman, Iskander. 2019. "[https://tnsr.org/2019/06/raison-detat-richelieus-grand-strategy-during-the-thirty-years-war/ Raison d'Etat: Richelieu's Grand Strategy During the Thirty Years' War.]" ''Texas National Security Review''.
* {{cite book
| author = Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal et Duc de
| year = 1964
| title = The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu
| others = trans. Henry Bertram Hill
| location = Madison
| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press
}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis de, Cardinal}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027143700/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5972/Richelieu.html Damayanov, Orlin. (1996). "The Political Career and Personal Qualities of Richelieu."]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13047a.htm Goyau, Georges. (1912). "Armand-Jean du Plessis, Duke de Richelieu." ''The Catholic Encyclopedia,'' Volume XIII. New York: Robert Appleton Company]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050308183426/http://ftp.sunet.se/pub/etext/gutenberg/etext96/1jcfs10.txt Schiller, Friedrich von. (1793). ''The History of the Thirty Years' War.'' Translated by A. J. W. Morrison.]
* {{librivox book | title=Cardinal Richelieu| author=Price}}

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{{FrenchChiefMinisters}}
{{Foreign Ministers of France}}
{{The Three Musketeers}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Richelieu, Cardinal}}
[[Category:Cardinal Richelieu| ]]
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