Editing Carl Linnaeus

{{Short description|Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist (1707–1778)}}
{{Distinguish|Carl Linnaeus the Younger|Karl Linnas}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|L.|Linn.|Linnaeus|other uses|L (disambiguation)|and|Linn (disambiguation)|and|Linnaeus (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox scientist
| image                     = Carl_von_Linné,_1707-1778,_botanist,_professor_(Alexander_Roslin)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif
| image_size                = 
| alt                       = Portrait of Linnaeus on a brown background with the word "Linne" in the top right corner
| caption                   = 1775 portrait
| birth_date                = {{Birth date|df=yes|1707|5|23}}<ref group=note name=birthdate>Carl Linnaeus was born in 1707 on 13 May ([[Swedish calendar]]) or 23 May according to the [[Gregorian calendar]]. According to the [[Julian calendar]] he was born on 12 May. (Blunt 2004, p. 12)</ref>
| birth_place               = [[Råshult]], Sweden
| death_date                = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1778|1|10|1707|5|23}}
| death_place               = [[Linnaeus' Hammarby|Hammarby]], Sweden
| resting_place             = [[Uppsala Cathedral]]
| resting_place_coordinates = {{Coord|59|51|29|N|17|38|00|E|region:SE-C_type:landmark|display=inline}}
| spouse                    = {{marriage|[[Sara Elisabeth Moræa]]|1739}}
| children                  = 7
| fields                    = {{Plain list|
* [[Biology]]
* [[Botany]]
* [[Zoology]]
}}
| workplaces                = Uppsala University
| alma_mater                = {{Plain list|
* [[Lund University]]
* [[Uppsala University]]
* [[University of Harderwijk]]
}}
| thesis_title              = Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa
| thesis_url                = https://books.google.com/books?id=K8NkAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover
| thesis_year               = 1735
| notable_students          = {{Plain list|
* [[Peter Ascanius]]
* [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]}}
| known_for                 = {{Plain list|
* [[Binomial nomenclature]]
* [[Linnaean taxonomy]]
* [[Linnaeus's flower clock]]
}}
| awards                    = [[List of fellows of the Royal Society J, K, L|ForMemRS]] (1753); Golden Knight of the [[Order of the Polar Star]]
| author_abbrev_bot         = L.
| author_abbrev_zoo         = Linnaeus
| signature                 = Linne autograph.png.svg
| signature_alt             = Carl v. Linné
}}

'''Carl Linnaeus'''{{efn|English: {{IPAc-en|l|ɪ|ˈ|n|i|ə|s|,_|l|ɪ|ˈ|n|eɪ|ə|s}} {{respell|lin|EE|əs|,_|lin|AY|əs}};<ref>{{Cite CD.com|Linnaeus}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140413115534/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Linnaeus-Carolus "Linnaeus, Carolus"] in the ''[[Oxford Dictionaries Online]]''.</ref> {{IPA|sv|ˈkɑːɭ lɪˈněːɵs|lang|small=no}}.}} (23 May 1707<ref group=note name=birthdate /> – 10 January 1778), also known after [[ennoblement]] in 1761 as '''Carl von Linné''',<ref name="Blunt171">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 171.</ref>{{efn|{{IPA|sv|ˈkɑːɭ fɔn lɪˈneː|-|sv-Carl_von_Linné.ogg|small=no}}.}} was a Swedish [[biologist]] and [[physician]] who formalised [[binomial nomenclature]], the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calisher |first1=C.H. |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |year=2007 |volume=48|issue=2|pages=268–270|pmid=17436393|pmc=2080517}}</ref> Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as '''{{lang|la|Carolus Linnæus|italics=no}}''' and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as '''{{lang|la|Carolus a Linné|italics=no}}'''.

Linnaeus was the son of a [[curate]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carolus Linnaeus {{!}} Biography, Education, Classification System, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carolus-Linnaeus |access-date=12 April 2023 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328170925/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carolus-Linnaeus |url-status=live }}</ref> and was born in [[Råshult]], in the countryside of [[Småland]], southern [[Sweden]]. He received most of his higher education at [[Uppsala University]] and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his ''{{lang|la|[[Systema Naturae]]}}'' in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.

Philosopher [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth."<ref name="HaveSaid">{{cite web |url=http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_3.html |title=What people have said about Linnaeus |work=Linné on line |publisher=Uppsala University |access-date=3 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608101238/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_3.html |archive-date=8 June 2011 }}</ref> [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] wrote: "With the exception of [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Baruch Spinoza]], I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly."<ref name="HaveSaid" /> Swedish author [[August Strindberg]] wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist."<ref name="deceased">{{cite web |url=http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/9_0.html |title=Linnaeus deceased |work=Linné on line |publisher=Uppsala University |access-date=3 October 2011 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207045010/http://www2.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/9_0.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Linnaeus has been called ''{{lang|la|Princeps botanicorum}}'' (Prince of Botanists) and "The [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] of the North".<ref>[[#Broberg|Broberg (2006)]], p. 7.</ref> He is also considered one of the founders of modern [[ecology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Egerton|first1=Frank N. |title=A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 23: Linnaeus and the Economy of Nature |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=88|issue=1|pages=72–88|doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[72:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=}}</ref>

In botany, the abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name.<ref>{{cite web |work=Author Details |publisher=International Plant Names Index |url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idAuthorSearch.do?id=12653-1 |title=Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778) |access-date=1 October 2011 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514014333/http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idAuthorSearch.do?id=12653-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In zoology, the abbreviation '''Linnaeus''' is generally used; the abbreviations L., '''Linnæus''', and '''Linné''' are also used.{{efn|1=Examples of uses of the [[Author citation (zoology)|author citation]] for the taxon name ''[[Cerambyx cerdo]]'': Linnaeus [https://www.gbif.org/species/5820507] (GBIF); L. [https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/11838/] (2017 publication); Linnæus [http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/home/speciestaxon?id=731] (AnimalBase); Linné [http://titan.gbif.fr/sel_genann1.php?numero=9569] (Titan database).}} In older publications, the abbreviation "'''Linn.'''" is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the [[type (biology)#Lectotype|type specimen]] for the species ''[[Homo sapiens]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 February 2015 |title=Type Specimens: An Overview |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/from-the-collections-posts/just-our-types-a-short-guide-to-type-specimens#:~:text=Interestingly%2C%20the%20lectotype%20for%20Homo,but%20in%20Sweden%27s%20Uppsala%20Cathedral.) |access-date=25 April 2024 |website=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> following the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]], since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.<ref group=note name=holotype>[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/ ICZN Chapter 16, Article 72.4.1.1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608184753/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/ |date=8 June 2011 }} – "For a nominal species or subspecies established before 2000, any evidence, published or unpublished, may be taken into account to determine what specimens constitute the type series." and Article 73.1.2 – "If the nominal species-group taxon is based on a single specimen, either so stated or implied in the original publication, that specimen is the holotype fixed by monotypy (see Recommendation 73F). If the taxon was established before 2000 evidence derived from outside the work itself may be taken into account [Art. 72.4.1.1] to help identify the specimen."</ref>

==Early life==
===Childhood===
{{See also|Linné family}}[[File:LA2-Rashult-2.jpg|thumb|right|Birthplace at [[Råshult]]]]

Linnaeus was born in the village of [[Råshult]] in [[Småland]], Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] of Stenbrohult and write a manual on [[beekeeping]]),<ref name="Blunt12"/><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 8.</ref><ref>[[#Broberg|Broberg (2006)]], p. 10.</ref> and Emerentia Linnæa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nicolaus Linnæus|url=http://www.geni.com/people/Nicolaus-Linn%C3%A6us/6000000006836790143|website=Geni|date=July 1674|access-date=27 January 2016|archive-date=3 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203132030/http://www.geni.com/people/Nicolaus-Linn%C3%A6us/6000000006836790143|url-status=live}}</ref> His father taught him Latin as a small child.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.famousscientists.org/carolus-linnaeus/|title=Carolus Linnaeus – Biography, Facts and Pictures|website=FamousScientists.org|language=en-US|access-date=10 April 2019|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406164711/https://www.famousscientists.org/carolus-linnaeus/|url-status=live}}</ref>

One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur [[botanist]], a [[Lutheran]] minister, and the [[curate]] of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius.<ref>[[#Fries|Fries (2011)]], p. 376.</ref>

A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the [[Clergy house|rectory]] from the curate's house.<ref name="Blunt13"/><ref>[[#Quammen|Quammen (2007)]], p. 1.</ref>

Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 15.</ref>

Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the [[patronymic]] naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the [[Lund University]], he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant [[linden tree]] (or lime tree), ''{{lang|sv|lind}}'' in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead.<ref name="Blunt12">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 12.</ref> This name was spelled with the [[æ]] [[Typographic ligature|ligature]]. When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications.<ref name="Blunt13">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 13.</ref> Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus.<ref>Gribbin, M., & Gribbin, J. (2008). ''Flower hunters''. Oxford University Press, US. Pg. 29. {{isbn|0199561826}}</ref>

===Early education===
[[File:Linnaeus - Örtaboken, early manuscript, 1725.jpg|thumb|''Örtaboken'' (Herb book), an early Linnaeus manuscript, 1725]]
Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thomson|first1=Thomas|title=History of the Royal Society From Its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century|year=2011|orig-year=1812|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-108-02815-8|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUlt0htkZZgC}}</ref> When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local [[yeoman]]. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 15–16.</ref>

Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower [[Grammar School]] at [[Växjö]] in 1717.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 5.</ref> Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caddy |first1=Florence |title=Through the Fields with Linnaeus: A Chapter in Swedish History |date=1887 |publisher=Little, Brown, and Company |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AHFkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA43 |access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref> He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden.

He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at [[Katedralskolan, Växjö|Katedralskolan]] (a [[Gymnasieskola|gymnasium]]) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 16.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 5–6.</ref> By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's ''Rydaholm Book of Herbs'', Tillandz's ''Flora Åboensis'', [[Johannes Palmberg|Palmberg's]] ''Serta Florea Suecana'', Bromelii's ''Chloros Gothica'' and Rudbeckii's ''Hortus Upsaliensis''".<ref>Carl von Linnés betydelse såsom naturforskare och läkare : skildringar utgifna af Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien i anledning af tvåhundraårsdagen af Linnés födelse ([https://runeberg.org/linne200ar/linnebotan/0007.html source] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224084253/https://runeberg.org/linne200ar/linnebotan/0007.html |date=24 February 2021 }})</ref>

Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[theology]], and [[mathematics]], a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 6.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 16–17.</ref> In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him [[physiology]] and botany. Nils accepted this offer.<ref name="Blunt17-18">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 17–18.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 8–11.</ref>

==University studies==
=== Lund ===
[[File:Carl von Linné i Lund.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue as a university student in [[Lund]], by [[Ansgar Almquist]]]]

Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort|Tournefort's]] system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to [[Sébastien Vaillant]].<ref name="Blunt17-18"/> In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in [[Lund University]] in [[Skåne]].<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 18.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 13.</ref> He was registered as ''{{lang|la|Carolus Linnæus|italics=no}}'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.<ref name="Blunt171"/>

Professor [[Kilian Stobæus]], natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 21–22.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 15.</ref> In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 14–15.</ref>

===Uppsala===
[[File:Linné-Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum.jpg|thumb|[[Pollination]] depicted in ''{{lang|la|Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum}}'' (1729)]]
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend [[Uppsala University]] on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: [[Olof Rudbeck the Younger]] and [[Lars Roberg]]. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 23–25.</ref> In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, [[Olof Celsius]], who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 31–32.</ref> He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 19–20.</ref>

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''{{lang|la|Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum}}'' on [[Plant reproductive morphology|plant sexual reproduction]]. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 32–34.</ref> In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 34–37.</ref> Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of [[stamen]]s and [[pistil]]s. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''{{lang|la|[[Genera Plantarum]]}}'' and ''{{lang|la|[[Critica Botanica]]}}''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the [[Linnaean Garden|Uppsala Botanical Garden]], ''{{lang|la|Adonis Uplandicus}}''.<ref name="Blunt2001-36-37">[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 36–37.</ref>

Rudbeck's former assistant, [[Nils Rosén von Rosenstein|Nils Rosén]], returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University.<ref name="Blunt2001-36-37"/><ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 40.</ref>

==Expedition to Lapland==
{{main|Expedition to Lapland|Flora Lapponica}}
[[File:Carolus Linnaeus by Hendrik Hollander 1853-2.jpg|thumb|right|Carl Linnaeus in Laponian costume (1737)]]
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to [[Lapland (Sweden)|Lapland]]; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native [[Sami people]], reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the [[Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala]] for his journey.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 42–43.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 38.</ref>
[[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - Martin Hoffman - Carl von Linné (Linnaeus) in his Lapland costume - painting.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Wearing the traditional dress of the [[Sami people]] of [[Lapland (Sweden)|Lapland]], holding the [[twinflower]], later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', that became his personal emblem. Martin Hoffman, 1737.]]

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25.<ref name="David Black">{{Cite book|title = Carl Linnaeus Travels|editor-last = Black|editor-first = David|publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons|year = 1979|isbn = 978-0-684-15976-8|page = 8}}</ref> He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and [[ornithological]] manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near [[Gävle]] he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''[[Linnaea borealis]]'', the twinflower that would become his favourite.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 42–43.</ref> He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 43–44.</ref> and was particularly interested in [[moss]]es and [[lichen]]s, the latter a main part of the diet of the [[reindeer]], a common and economically important animal in Lapland.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 46.</ref>

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the [[Gulf of Bothnia]], making major inland incursions from [[Umeå]], [[Luleå]] and [[Tornio]]. He returned from his six-month-long, over {{convert|2000|km|mi}} expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 63–65.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 39–42.</ref><ref name="Broberg29">[[#Broberg|Broberg (2006)]], p. 29.</ref> Although Lapland was a region with limited [[biodiversity]], Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''{{lang|la|[[Flora Lapponica]]}}''.<ref>[[#Quammen|Quammen (2007)]], p. 2.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 38–39.</ref> However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.<ref name="David Black" />

In ''{{lang|la|Flora Lapponica}}'' Linnaeus's ideas about [[nomenclature]] and [[Biological classification|classification]] were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern [[Flora (publication)|Flora]].<ref name="Frodin_p27"/> The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] who attributed Linnaeus with ''{{lang|la|Flora Lapponica}}'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian [[Edward Lee Greene|E. L. Greene]] described ''{{lang|la|Flora Lapponica}}'' as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works.<ref name="Frodin_p27">[[#Frodin|Frodin (2001)]], p. 27.</ref>

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a [[Eureka effect|flash of insight]] regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds."<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 54.</ref>

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to [[Dalarna]]. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at [[Røros (town)|Røros]].<ref name="Broberg29"/>

==Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38)==
[[File:Albertus Seba - Hydra.jpg|thumb|right|The Hamburg Hydra, from the ''{{lang|la|Thesaurus}}'' (1734) of [[Albertus Seba]]. Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735.]]
[[File:Hartekamp-2011.jpg|right|thumb|View of [[Hartekamp]], where Carl von Linné lived and studied for three years, from 1735 until 1738]]
[[File:Musa Cliffortiana 1736.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[:de:Musa Cliffortiana|Musa Cliffortiana]]'' (1736), Linnaeus's first botanical monograph]]
[[File:Hortus Cliffortianus 1737.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]'' (1737). The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus and [[Georg Dionysius Ehret]], financed by [[George Clifford III]], one of the directors of the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]].]]

===Doctorate===
[[File:Karte Linne.png|thumb|right|Cities where he worked; those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735–1738]]
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in [[Falun]], where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 74.</ref>

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the [[Dutch Republic]], where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the [[University of Harderwijk]]<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 71.</ref> while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the [[Netherlands]], then a highly revered place to study natural history.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 78–79.</ref>

On the way, the pair stopped in [[Hamburg]], where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the [[taxidermy|taxidermied]] remains of a seven-headed [[Lernaean Hydra|hydra]]. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a [[hoax|fake]], cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the [[The Beast (Bible)|Beast of Revelation]]. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.<ref name="Anderson60-61">[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 60–61.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 90.</ref>

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached [[Harderwijk]], a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week.<ref name="Blunt94"/> He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'',<ref group=note name=dissertatio>That is, ''Inaugural thesis in medicine, in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented''</ref> in which he laid out his hypothesis that [[malaria]] arose only in areas with clay-rich soils.<ref name=hempelmann>{{cite journal|last1=Hempelmann|first1=Ernst|last2=Krafts|first2=Kristine|title=Bad air, amulets and mosquitoes: 2,000 years of changing perspectives on malaria|journal=Malaria Journal|year=2013|volume=12|issue=1|page=232|doi=10.1186/1475-2875-12-232|pmid=23835014|pmc=3723432 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''[[Anopheles]]'' [[mosquito]]),<ref>[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/4_1.html Linnaeus's thesis on the ague (malaria)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812174203/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/4_1.html |date=12 August 2014 }}, 2008, Uppsala University.</ref> he did correctly predict that ''[[Artemisia annua]]'' ([[artemisinins|wormwood]]) would become a source of [[antimalarial]] medications.<ref name=hempelmann/>

Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.<ref name="Anderson60-61"/><ref name="Blunt94">[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 94.</ref>

That summer Linnaeus reunited with [[Peter Artedi]], a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the [[canals of Amsterdam]], leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 66.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 98–100.</ref>

===Publishing of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}''===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was [[Jan Frederik Gronovius|Johan Frederik Gronovius]], to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor [[Isaac Lawson]], the manuscript was published as ''{{lang|la|[[Systema Naturae]]}}'' (1735).<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 98.</ref><ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 62–63.</ref>

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, [[Herman Boerhaave]], who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist [[Johannes Burman]]. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''{{lang|la|Thesaurus Zeylanicus}}''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''{{lang|la|Fundamenta Botanica}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Bibliotheca Botanica}}''.<ref name="Blunt100-102">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 100–102.</ref>

===George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius===
{{multiple image|footer = Leaf forms from ''{{lang|la|[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]}}''|image1 = Hortus Cliffortianus folia simpl.png|alt1=Folia Simplicia|width1=107|image2=Hortus Cliffortianus folia compos.png|alt2=Folia Composita et Folia Determinata|width2=106}}

In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met [[George Clifford III]], a director of the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of [[Hartekamp]] in [[Heemstede]]. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of [[Hans Sloane|Sir Hans Sloane's]] ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 64.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 81–82.</ref> On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 [[florin]]s a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shurtleff|first1=William|last2=Aoyagi|first2=Akiko|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland (1735–2015): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook|year=2015|publisher=Soyinfo Center|location=California|isbn=978-1-928914-80-8|page=222|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gtpCgAAQBAJ}}</ref> It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tanner|first1=Vasco M.|title=Carl Linnaeus contributions and collections|journal=The Great Basin Naturalist|year=1959|volume=19|issue=1|pages=27–34|url=https://journals.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/30161/28624|access-date=17 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310055525/https://journals.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/wnan/article/viewFile/30161/28624|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linnaeushof|url=http://www.holland.com/global/tourism/article/linnaeushof-1.htm|website=Hollan.com|access-date=17 February 2016|date=17 January 2013|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202033807/http://www.holland.com/global/tourism/article/linnaeushof-1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 106–107.</ref> He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his [[cabinet of curiosities|cabinet]],<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 89.</ref> as well as to visit the [[Chelsea Physic Garden]] and its keeper, [[Philip Miller]]. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new [[binomial nomenclature]], preferring instead the classifications of [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] and [[John Ray]]. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''.<ref>''Non erit Lexicon Hortulanorum, sed etiam Botanicorum'', that the book will be, not just a lexicon of gardeners, but of botanists."; noted in Paterson 1986:40–41.</ref> The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''[[The Gardeners Dictionary]]'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 89–90.</ref>

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]]. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as "''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 90–93.</ref> The next year, 1737, he published ''{{lang|la|[[Genera Plantarum]]}}'', in which he described 935 [[Genus|genera]] of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''{{lang|la|Corollarium Generum Plantarum}}'', with another sixty (''sexaginta'') genera.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 95.</ref>

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''{{lang|la|[[Hortus Cliffortianus]]}}'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.<ref name="Blunt100-102"/> It contains the first use of the name ''[[Nepenthes]]'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of [[pitcher plant]]s.<ref>[[#Veitch|Veitch (1897)]]</ref><ref group=note name=nepenthes>"If this is not Helen's ''[[Nepenthe]]s'', it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator!" (translated from Latin by [[Harry Veitch]])</ref>

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as [[Antoine de Jussieu]]. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.<ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], p. 123.</ref><ref name="Koerner56">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 56.</ref>

==Return to Sweden==
[[File:LinnaeusWeddingPortrait.jpg|thumb|upright|Wedding portrait]]

When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to [[Falun]], where he entered into an engagement to [[Sara Elisabeth Moræa]]. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family.<ref name=nrm.se>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nrm.se/researchandcollections/botany/phanerogamicbotany/botanicalhistory/carlvonlinne.4.5fdc727f10d795b1c6e80007524.html |title=Carl Linnaeus |access-date=3 April 2010 |author=Louise Petrusson |publisher=Swedish Museum of Natural History |archive-date=3 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503175018/http://www.nrm.se/researchandcollections/botany/phanerogamicbotany/botanicalhistory/carlvonlinne.4.5fdc727f10d795b1c6e80007524.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 141.</ref> Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with [[Carl Gustav Tessin|Count Carl Gustav Tessin]], who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 146–147.</ref><ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 16.</ref> During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Science]]; he became the first [[Praeses#Modern uses|Praeses]] of the academy by drawing of lots.<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], pp. 103–105.</ref>

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, [[Carl Linnaeus the Younger|Carl]]. Two years later, a daughter, [[Elisabeth Christina von Linné|Elisabeth Christina]], was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.<ref name=nrm.se/><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 382.</ref>

[[File:CarlvonLinne house.jpg|thumb|House in [[Uppsala]]]]
In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and [[natural history]], instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], pp. 49–50.</ref>

=== Öland and Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of [[Öland]] and [[Gotland]] with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to [[Visby]] in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''{{lang|sv|Öländska och Gothländska Resa}}'', written in Swedish. Like ''{{lang|la|Flora Lapponica}}'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.<ref name="Koerner115">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 115.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 137–142.</ref>

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''{{lang|la|Flora Suecica}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Fauna Suecica}}''. ''{{lang|la|Flora Suecica}}'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''{{lang|la|Fauna Suecica}}'' was [[zoology|zoological]].<ref name=nrm.se/><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 117–118.</ref> [[Anders Celsius]] had created the temperature scale [[Celsius|named after him]] in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0&nbsp;°C and freezing at 100&nbsp;°C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745.<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 204.</ref>

===Västergötland===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of [[Västergötland]]. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''{{lang|sv|Wästgöta-Resa}}'', published the next year.<ref name="Koerner115"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 159.</ref> After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province [[Scania]]. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.<ref name=nrm.se/>

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title [[archiater]], or chief physician, by the Swedish king [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]]—a mark of great respect.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 165.</ref> The same year he was elected member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences in Berlin]].<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 167.</ref>

===Scania===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to [[Scania]], again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow [[walnut]] and [[Sorbus intermedia|Swedish whitebeam]] trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the [[Ramlösa Hälsobrunn|Ramlösa mineral spa]], where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl|url=https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|title=Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749|publisher=|year=1751|location=Stockholm|language=sv|chapter=Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749: 11 juni|chapter-url=https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|ref=none|access-date=30 January 2022|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125231554/https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|url-status=live}}</ref> The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''{{lang|sv|Skånska Resa}}''.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 198–205.</ref><ref name="Koerner116">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 116.</ref>

===Rector of Uppsala University===
[[File:CarlvonLinne Hammarby.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Summer home at his Hammarby estate]]
[[File:CarlvonLinne Garden.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Linnaean Garden]] in Uppsala]]

In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.<ref name=nrm.se/> Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles".<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], pp. 56–57.</ref> His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 173–174.</ref>

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''[[Philosophia Botanica]]'' in 1751.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1751}} The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 221.</ref>

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
[[File:Nutrix noverca.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Cover of ''Nutrix Noverca'' (1752)]]
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have [[wet nurse]]s for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student,<ref>{{cite book| author=Tönz, Otmar| chapter=Breastfeeding in modern and ancient times: Facts, ideas and beliefs| page=12| title= Short and Long Term Effects of Breast Feeding on Child Health| editor1=Koletzko, Berthold|editor2=Michaelsen, K. F.|editor3=Hernell, Olle| publisher=Springer| year=2006}}</ref> based on their experiences.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/NutrixNoverca|title=Nutrix Noverca|year=1752|author=Carl Linnaeus|language=la}}</ref> In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by [[Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert|J. E. Gilibert]] in 1770 as {{lang|fr|La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire}}. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps<ref name="Koerner, Lisbet 2009 69–70">{{cite book|author=Koerner, Lisbet| title=Linnaeus: Nature and Nation| year=2009| pages=69–70}}</ref> and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.<ref name="Koerner, Lisbet 2009 69–70"/> It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Why Mammals are Called Mammals: Gender Politics in Eighteenth-Century Natural History| first=Londa| last=Schiebinger| s2cid=46119192| journal=The American Historical Review| volume=98| issue=2| year=1993|pages= 382–411 |jstor=2166840| doi=10.2307/2166840| pmid=11623150}}</ref>

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
{{main|Species Plantarum}}
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern [[botanical nomenclature]], in 1753.<ref name="Stace_p24">[[#Stace|Stace (1991)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C&pg=PA24 p. 24].</ref> The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.{{refn|1=The date of issue of both volumes was later, for practical purposes, arbitrarily set on 1 May, see Stearn, W. T. (1957), The preparation of the ''Species Plantarum'' and the introduction of binomial nomenclature, in: Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition, London, Ray Society: 72 and ICN (''Melbourne Code'')<ref>{{cite book |author1=McNeill, J. |author2=Barrie, F.R. |author3=Buck, W.R. |author4=Demoulin, V. |author5=Greuter, W. |author6=Hawksworth, D.L. |author7=Herendeen, P.S. |author8=Knapp, S. |author9=Marhold, K. |author10=Prado, J. |author11=Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F. |author12=Smith, G.F. |author13=Wiersema, J.H. |author14=Turland, N.J. |year=2012 |volume=Regnum Vegetabile 154 |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011 |publisher=A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG |isbn=978-3-87429-425-6 |url=http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title |access-date=28 July 2014 |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104060236/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title |url-status=live }}</ref> Art. 13.4 Note 1: "The two volumes of Linnaeus' Species plantarum, ed. 1 (1753), which appeared in May and August, 1753, respectively, are treated as having been published simultaneously on 1 May 1753."|group=note}}<ref>[[#Sprague|Sprague (1953)]]</ref> The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.<ref name="Gribbin47">[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 47.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 198–199.</ref> The same year the king dubbed him knight of the [[Order of the Polar Star]], the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 166.</ref>

===Ennoblement===
[[File:Linne CoA.jpg|thumb|right|His [[coat of arms]]]]
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.<ref name="Koerner116"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 219.</ref> In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 220–224.</ref>

Since the initial release of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for [[zoological nomenclature]], the equivalent of ''{{lang|la|Species Plantarum}}''.<ref name="Gribbin47"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 6.</ref>

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus [[nobility]] in 1757, but he was not [[ennobled]] until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as {{lang|la|Carolus a Linné|italics=no}}), 'Linné' being a shortened and [[French language|gallicised]] version of 'Linnæus', and the German [[nobiliary particle]] '[[von]]' signifying his ennoblement.<ref name="Blunt171"/> The noble family's [[coat of arms]] prominently features a [[Linnaea borealis|twinflower]], one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by [[Jan Frederik Gronovius|Gronovius]]. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg "to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''". At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the [[Aeneid]], which reads "''Famam extendere factis''": we extend our fame by our deeds.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 62.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 199.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 229–230.</ref> Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Anecdotes of Linnaeus|page=v |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/ornithologyhummi06jardrich#page/n21/mode/2up|title=The Naturalist's Library. Volume VI. Ornithology. Humming birds, Part I.|editor=Jardine, William|publisher=Chatto & Windus|place=London|year=1865}}</ref>

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Gunnar |last=Broberg |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |title=Carl Linnaeus |publisher=Het Zweeds Instituut/Svenska Institutet |date=2006 |isbn=91-520-0919-X |page=24 |language=nl}}</ref> His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, [[Catherine II of Russia]] sent him seeds from her country.<ref>[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_0.html Uppsala University, Linné Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123181433/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_0.html |date=23 January 2012 }}, English language version</ref> He also corresponded with [[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli]], "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist in [[Idrija]], [[Duchy of Carniola]] (nowadays [[Slovenia]]).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |title=A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala |first=Branko |last=Soban |newspaper=The Slovenian |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620023752/http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the [[olm]] and the [[dormouse]], two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''[[Scopolia]]'', the source of [[scopolamine]], after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |title=A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala |access-date=1 December 2007 |last=Soban |first=Branko |date=January 2005 |work=Slovenija.svet |publisher=Slovene Emigrant Association |archive-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620023752/http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio|title=Joannes A. Scopoli-Carl Linnaeus. Dopisovanje/Correspondence 1760–1775, ed. Darinka Soban|publisher=Slovenian Natural history society|location=Ljubljana}}</ref>

==Final years==
[[File:Carl von Linné grave 2007 Upsala.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Headstone]] of him and his son [[Carl Linnaeus the Younger]]]]

Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.<ref name=nrm.se/> In 1769 he was elected to the [[American Philosophical Society]] for his work.<ref>Bell, Whitfield J., and Charles Greifenstein, Jr. Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society. 3 vols. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997, 3:145–147.</ref> He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.<ref name="Koerner56"/><ref name="Blunt245">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 245.</ref>

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed [[sciatica]] in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 232.</ref> He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 243–245.</ref><ref>[[#Broberg|Broberg (2006)]], p. 42.</ref>

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 63.</ref><ref name="Blunt245"/> Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in [[Uppsala Cathedral]] on 22 January.<ref>[[#Quammen|Quammen (2007)]], p. 4.</ref><ref name="Anderson104-106">[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 104–106.</ref>

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. [[Joseph Banks]], an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, [[James Edward Smith (botanist)|James Edward Smith]], who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the [[Linnean Society of London]] five years later.<ref name="Anderson104-106"/><ref>[[#Blunt2001|Blunt (2001)]], pp. 238–240.</ref>

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married.<ref name="deceased"/> His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_bio_note.php?id_letter=L1753&code_person=LinnaeusJ |title=Linnaeus, Johannes (1754–1757). Swedish. Son of Carl Linnaeus and Sara Elisabet Linnaea |work=The Linnaeus Correspondence |publisher=Centre international d'étude du XVIIIe siècle |access-date=4 October 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927135529/http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_bio_note.php?id_letter=L1753&code_person=LinnaeusJ |url-status=live }}</ref> There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.<ref name="deceased"/>

==Apostles==
{{Main|Apostles of Linnaeus}}
[[File:Carl Peter Thunberg x Jacob Fredrik Ek.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|left|[[Carl Peter Thunberg]] was a [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] physician and an [[apostles of Linnaeus|apostle of Linnaeus]].]]
[[File:Pehr Forsskål portrait (cropped and color balanced).png|thumb|upright=0.5|left|[[Peter Forsskål]] was among the apostles who met a tragic fate abroad.]]

During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught [[List of students of Linnaeus|many devoted students]], 17 of whom he called "apostles". They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 189–190.</ref> To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished.<ref>[[#Broberg|Broberg (2006)]], pp. 37–39.</ref> Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 92–93.</ref> The British botanist [[William T. Stearn]] notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.<ref name="Blunt184-185">[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 184–185.</ref> Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.

===Early expeditions===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a [[Swedish East India Company]] ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on [[Côn Sơn Island]] the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 185–186.</ref> Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including [[Pehr Forsskål]] and [[Pehr Löfling]].<ref name="Blunt184-185"/>

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born [[Pehr Kalm]] set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], pp. 93–94.</ref>

===Cook expeditions and Japan===
[[File:Mortimer - Captain James Cook, Sir Joseph Banks, Lord Sandwich, Dr Daniel Solander and Dr John Hawkesworth.jpg|thumb |right |Apostle [[Daniel Solander]] (far left) with [[Joseph Banks]] (left, sitting) accompanied [[James Cook]] (centre) on his journey to Australia.]]
[[Daniel Solander]] was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist [[Joseph Banks]]. With Banks, Solander joined [[James Cook]] on his expedition to Oceania on the ''[[HM Bark Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' in 1768–71.<ref>[[#Anderson|Anderson (1997)]], p. 96.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 191–192.</ref> Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; [[Anders Sparrman]] followed on the ''[[HMS Resolution (1771)|Resolution]]'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 192–193.</ref>

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to [[Japan]]. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of [[Dejima]] outside [[Nagasaki]], so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 193–194.</ref>

==Major publications==
{{Main|Carl Linnaeus bibliography}}

===''Systema Naturae''===
[[File:Linnaeus1758-title-page.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturæ'']] (1758)]]

{{Main|Systema Naturae}}

The first edition of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work.<ref>[[#L1735|Linnaeus (1735)]]</ref> By the time it reached its [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition]] in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the [[index card]]—to track classifications.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Everts|first1=Sarah|title=Information Overload|journal=Distillations|year=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=26–33|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/information-overload|access-date=20 March 2018|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133511/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/information-overload|url-status=live}}</ref>

In ''Systema Naturae'', the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "''{{lang|la|Physalis annua ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, foliis dentato-serratis}}''", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given, ''[[Physalis angulata]]''. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as [[binomial nomenclature]], was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see [[Gaspard Bauhin]] and [[Johann Bauhin]]) almost 200 years earlier,<ref>[[#Windelspecht|Windelspecht (2002)]], p. 28.</ref> Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, [[Johan Andreas Murray]], issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.{{sfn|Linné|1774}} Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the [[Lichfield Botanical Society]] as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).{{sfn|Linné|1785}}

===''Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis''===

('Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus, Doctor') Published in 1740, this small octavo-sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018. This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus, and crucial to his career, securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University. From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy.

===''{{lang|la|Species Plantarum}}''===
{{Main|Species Plantarum}}

''{{lang|la|Species Plantarum}}'' (or, more fully, ''{{lang|la|Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas}}'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of [[botanical nomenclature|plant nomenclature]] as it exists today.<ref name="Stace_p24"/>

====''{{lang|la|Genera Plantarum}}''====
{{Main|Genera Plantarum}}

''{{lang|la|Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium}}'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.<ref>[[#Stace|Stace (1991)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C&pg=PA22 p. 22].</ref> In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, [[Cryptogamia]], included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).<ref>[[#Hoek|Van den Hoek ''et al.'' (2005)]].</ref>

====''{{lang|la|Philosophia Botanica}}''====
{{Main|Philosophia Botanica}}

''{{lang|la|Philosophia Botanica}}'' (1751){{sfn|Linnaeus|1751}} was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''{{lang|la|[[Fundamenta Botanica]]}}'' (1736) and ''{{lang|la|[[Critica Botanica]]}}'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''{{lang|la|[[Classes Plantarum]]}}'' and ''{{lang|la|[[Bibliotheca Botanica]]}}'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''{{lang|la|[[Genera Plantarum]]}}'' (1737) and ''{{lang|la|[[Systema Naturae]]}}'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.<ref>[[#Stafleu|Stafleu (1971)]], p. 157.</ref>

==Collections==
[[File:External Statues, Palm House, Sefton Park (4).jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Linnaeus'' marble by [[Léon-Joseph Chavalliaud]] (1899), outside the Palm House at [[Sefton Park]] in [[Liverpool]]]]
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in [[Uppsala]] was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by [[Carl Gyllenborg]] (in 1744–1745), crown-prince [[Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden|Adolf Fredrik]] (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), [[Claes Grill]] (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and [[Jonas Alströmer]] (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum.<ref name="Wallin, L. 2001">[http://www.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se/samling/UUZM04_Linnaeus.pdf Wallin, L. 2001.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027143836/http://www.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se/samling/UUZM04_Linnaeus.pdf |date=27 October 2012 }} Catalogue of type specimens. 4. Linnaean specimens. – pp. [1], 1–128. Uppsala. (Uppsala University, Museum of Evolution, Zoology Section).</ref> Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 "the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers". He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.<ref>Lisbet Koerner, "Carl Linnaeus in his Time and Place", in Cultures of Natural History, ed. Nicholas Jardine, [[James A. Secord]], and Emma C. Spary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 145–162.</ref>

In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to his [[Linnaeus's Hammarby|country house at Hammarby]] near Uppsala. This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university. Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum.

In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects. Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783. Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused "horrible damage" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage.<ref name="Dance, S.P. 1967">Dance, S.P. 1967. Report on the Linnaean shell collection. – Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 178 (1): 1–24, Pl. 1–10.</ref> He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens. This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material.

In 1784 the young medical student [[James Edward Smith (botanist)|James Edward Smith]] purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Paul|title=The purchase of knowledge: James Edward Smith and the Linnean collections|journal=Endeavour|year=1999|volume=23|issue=3|page=126|doi=10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01212-0|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi916/week5/white_the_purchase_of_knowledge.pdf|access-date=28 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813113652/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi916/week5/white_the_purchase_of_knowledge.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[[#Fries|Fries (2011)]], pp. 342–357.</ref> Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallin |first1=Lars |title=Catalogue of type specimens. 4. |journal=Uppsala University Museum of Evolution Zoology Section |date=14 February 2001 |issue=6 |page=4 |url=http://www.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se/samling/UUZM04_Linnaeus.pdf |access-date=25 February 2019 |archive-date=27 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027143836/http://www.evolutionsmuseet.uu.se/samling/UUZM04_Linnaeus.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away.<ref>Examples are evident in the [http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN603451020 Portland catalogue p. 76 Lot 1715 and p. 188 Lot 3997.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018045955/https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN603451020 |date=18 October 2019 }} "A catalogue of the Portland Museum, lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland, deceased: Which will be sold by auction by Mr. Skinner and Co. On Monday the 24th of April, 1786, and the thirty-seven following days (...) at her late dwelling-house, in Privy-Garden, Whitehall, by order of the Acting Executrix." – pp. i–viii [= 1–8], 3–194, pl. [1]. [London]. (Skinner).</ref> Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.<ref name="Dance, S.P. 1967" />

Much material which had been intensively studied by Linné in his scientific career belonged to the collection of [[Louisa Ulrika of Prussia|Queen Lovisa Ulrika]] (1720–1782) (in the Linnean publications referred to as "Museum Ludovicae Ulricae" or "M. L. U."). This collection was donated by her grandson [[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden|King Gustav IV Adolf]] (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Another important collection in this respect was that of her husband [[Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden|King Adolf Fredrik]] (1710–1771) (in the Linnean sources known as "Museum Adolphi Friderici" or "Mus. Ad. Fr."), the wet parts (alcohol collection) of which were later donated to the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], and is today housed in the [[Swedish Museum of Natural History]] at [[Stockholm]]. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.<ref name="Wallin, L. 2001" />

==System of taxonomy==
[[File:Linnaeus - Regnum Animale (1735).png|thumb|right|Table of the Animal Kingdom (''{{lang|la|Regnum Animale}}'') from the 1st edition of ''{{lang|la|[[Systema Naturae|Systema Naturæ]]}}'' (1735)]]

{{Main|Linnaean taxonomy}}

The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature.<ref name="Reveal 1993 p. 160-161">[[#Reveal|Reveal & Pringle (1993)]], pp.&nbsp;160–161.</ref> During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of [[scientific classification]] now widely used in the [[biology|biological sciences]]. A previous zoologist [[Rumphius]] (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Monk |first=K.A. |author2=Fretes, Y. |author3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G.  |title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |page=4|location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-962-593-076-3}}</ref>

The Linnaean system classified nature within a [[nested hierarchy]], starting with three [[kingdom (biology)|kingdoms]]. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species).<ref>[[#Simpson|Simpson (1961)]], pp.&nbsp;16–19.</ref> Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) [[taxonomic rank|rank]]; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of [[Family (biology)|family]] between order and genus and a rank of [[phylum]] between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.<ref name="Davis 1973 p. 17">[[#Davis|Davis & Heywood (1973)]], p. 17.</ref>

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences.<ref name="Davis 1973 p. 17"/> Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.<ref name="Reveal 1993 p. 160-161"/><ref>[[#Simpson|Simpson (1961)]], pp.&nbsp;56–57.</ref> While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid "observable characteristics" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example, [[DNA sequencing]], unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their [[Phylogenetics|evolutionary relationships]]), the fundamental principle remains sound.

=== Human taxonomy ===
{{main|Human taxonomy#History}}
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (''[[Homo]]'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''[[Simia]]''), under the header of ''[[Anthropomorpha]]''.
German biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]] speaking in 1907 noted this as the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius".<ref>Sven Horstadius,  Linnaeus, animals and man, Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 6 (December 1974), 269–275 (p. 273).</ref>

{{anchor|Biological Family}}
Linnaeus classified humans among the [[primate]]s beginning with the first edition of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNtjfh57ipsC&q=primate+carl+linnaeus+highest |title=The Book of Popular Science |date=1963 |language=en}}</ref> During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several [[monkey]]s and noted similarities between them and man.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], pp. 173–174.</ref> He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences.<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 170.</ref><ref group=note>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 167, quotes Linnaeus explaining the real difference would necessarily be absent from his classification system, as it was not a [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] characteristic: ''"I well know what a splendidly great difference there is [between] a man and a ''bestia'' [literally, "beast"; that is, a non-human animal] when I look at them from a point of view of [[morality]]. Man is the animal which the [[Creator deity#Christianity|Creator]] has seen fit to honor with such a magnificent [[mind]] and has condescended to adopt as his favorite and for which he has prepared a nobler life"''. See also [https://books.google.com/books?id=wIkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA179 books.google.com] in which Linnaeus cites the significant capacity to reason as the distinguishing characteristic of humans.</ref> Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning "manlike".<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 167.</ref> This classification received criticism from other biologists such as [[Johan Gottschalk Wallerius]], [[Jacob Theodor Klein]] and [[Johann Georg Gmelin]] on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0759 |author=Johann Georg Gmelin |title=Letter to Carl Linnaeus |date=30 December 1746 |location=St. Petersburg, Russia |work=The Linnean Correspondence |access-date=4 October 2011 |id=L0759 |author-link=Johann Georg Gmelin |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927135303/http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0759 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783 |author=Carl Linnaeus |title=Letter to Johann Georg Gmelin |date=25 February 1747 |location=Uppsala, Sweden |work=The Linnean Correspondence |access-date=4 October 2011 |id=L0783 |archive-date=27 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227174240/http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783 |url-status=live }} Also available as [http://linnaeus.c18.net/mss_combine/UUB/L-GmelinJG/L0783-a-150-02.jpg JPG] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110704203749/http://linnaeus.c18.net/mss_combine/UUB/L-GmelinJG/L0783-a-150-02.jpg |date=4 July 2011 }}.</ref>{{refn|1=Discussion of translation was originally made in [https://groups.google.com/group/talk.origins/browse_thread/thread/39a07ac72ab23aed/ this thread] on [[talk.origins]] in 2005. For an alternative translation, see [[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 56, or [[#Slotkin|Slotkin (1965)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wIkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180 p. 180].|group=note}}

<!--Please don't edit the translation without leaving a comment on the talk page. -->{{blockquote|It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form',<ref group=note>"antropomorphon" {{sic}}</ref> but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History.<ref group=note>Others who followed were more inclined to give humans a special place in classification; [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] in the first edition of his ''Manual of Natural History'' (1779), proposed that the primates be divided into the [[Quadrumana]] (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) and [[Bimana]] (two-handed, i.e. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notably [[Georges Cuvier]]. Some elevated the distinction to the level of [[order (biology)|order]]. However, the many affinities between humans and other primates—and especially the great apes—made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. [[Charles Darwin]] wrote, in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' in 1871:

{{blockquote|The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]] and [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by [[Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm Bischoff|Bischoff]], [[Christoph Theodor Aeby|Aeby]], and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.}}</ref> I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.}}

[[File:Antropomorpha12c.png|thumb|left|Detail from the sixth edition of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' (1748) describing ''[[Anthropomorpha|Ant[h]ropomorpha]]'' with a division between ''Homo'' and ''Simia'']]

The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the [[great chain of being]], and second, because the Bible says man was created in the [[image of God]] ([[theomorphism]]), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], pp. 171–172.</ref> The conflict between [[world view]]s that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater, and still ongoing, [[creation–evolution controversy]] began in earnest with the publication of ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1859.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter of which would replace ''Anthropomorpha''<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 175.</ref> as well as giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 8.</ref> The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it.<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], pp. 191–192.</ref> In his book ''{{lang|la|Dieta Naturalis}}'', he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has a [[soul]] and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility."<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 166.</ref>

{{anchor|Other Homo species}}
[[File:Hoppius Anthropomorpha.png|thumb|right|''Anthropomorpha'', from the 1760 dissertation by C. E. Hoppius<ref>C. E. Hoppius, "Anthropomorpha", ''[[Amoenitates Academicae]]'' vol. 6 (1763).</ref><br />1. Troglodyta Bontii, 2. Lucifer Aldrovandi, 3. Satyrus Tulpii, 4. Pygmaeus Edwardi]]

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' based on a figure and description by [[Jacobus Bontius]] from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' ("caveman")<ref>[[#L1758|Linnaeus (1758)]], p. 24.</ref><ref>[[#Bontius|Bontius (1658)]], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/39776#page/106/mode/1up p. 84] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721224311/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/39776#page/106/mode/1up |date=21 July 2017 }}.</ref> and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''.<ref>[[#L1771|Linnaeus (1771)]], p. 521.</ref> Swedish historian [[Gunnar Broberg]] states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus.<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 187.</ref> For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the [[Swedish East India Company]] to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.<ref>[[#Frängsmyr|Frängsmyr ''et al.'' (1983)]], p. 186.</ref> ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the [[lar gibbon]].<ref>[[#Wilson|Wilson & Reeder (2005)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=RfxoYz23lj4C&pg=PA179 p. 179].</ref>

{{anchor|Varieties of Homo sapiens}}
{{See also|Race (human categorization)}}
In the first edition of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four [[Race (biology)|varieties]]: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African).<ref>In later editions the naming was changed from whitish, reddish, tawny, blackish to white (albus), red (rufus), pale yellow (luridus), and black (niger). Staffan Müller-Wille "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World", in The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900, ed. Ralph Bauer, Kim Coles, Zit Nines, and Carla Peterson, 191–209 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave, 2015 [https://www.academia.edu/11935913/Linnaeus_and_the_Four_Corners_of_the_World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624025947/https://www.academia.edu/11935913/Linnaeus_and_the_Four_Corners_of_the_World|date=24 June 2020}}</ref><ref>[[#Braziel|Braziel (2007)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=hm9et5BiVJgC&pg=PA43 pp. 43–44].</ref>
In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the [[four temperaments]] from [[classical antiquity]],<ref>{{quote needed|date=May 2018}}<!--WP:BOMBARD of three references, what exactly is being referenced here, and in whose opinion are the "four temperaments" involved?-->
[[#Loring|Loring Brace (2005)]], p. 27.
[[#Slotkin|Slotkin (1965)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=wIkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA176 pp. 176–178].
[[#Marks|Marks (2010)]], p. 265.</ref>{{dubious|date=May 2018}} and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow).<ref>[[#Keevak|Keevak (2011)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmHNk38OgDEC&pg=PA3 pp. 3–4].</ref> While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known [[Continent|continents]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Wille |first1=Staffan |title=Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World |journal=The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900 |year=2014 |pages=191–209 |doi=10.1057/9781137338211_10|hdl=10871/16833 |isbn=978-1-349-46395-4 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> the [[The Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] acknowledges that his categorization's focus on [[Human skin color|skin color]] and later inclusion of [[culture|cultural]] and behavioral traits cemented [[colonialism|colonial]] stereotypes and provided the foundations for [[scientific racism]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Charmantier |first1=Isabelle |title=Linnaeus and Race |url=https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race |website=The Linnean Society |access-date=30 November 2023 |year=2020 |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604225406/https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race |url-status=live }}</ref> {{anchor|Monstrosus}}Additionally, Linnaeus created a [[wastebasket taxon]] "monstrosus" for "wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people".<ref>[[#Willoughby|Willoughby (2007)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=dOC38AS_VfkC&pg=PA33 pp. 33–34], citing [[#Broberg1975|Broberg (1975)]], p. 291.</ref>

In 1959, [[W. T. Stearn]] designated Linnaeus to be the [[lectotype]] of ''H. sapiens''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stearn |first=W. T. |s2cid=85221313 |author-link=William T. Stearn |year=1959 |title=The Background of Linnaeus's Contributions to the Nomenclature and Methods of Systematic Biology  |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=4–22 |doi=10.2307/sysbio/8.1.4 |jstor=2411603}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spamer |first1=Earle E. |title=Know Thyself: Responsible Science and the Lectotype of ''Homo sapiens'' Linnaeus, 1758 |journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia |year=1999 |volume=149 |pages=109–114 |jstor=4065043}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Notton |first1=David |last2=Stringer |first2=Chris |title=Who is the type of Homo sapiens? |url=http://iczn.org/content/who-type-homo-sapiens |website=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |access-date=3 December 2018 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514111833/http://iczn.org/content/who-type-homo-sapiens |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Influences and economic beliefs==
[[File:LinneStatueMidway.jpg|right|upright|thumb|Statue on University of Chicago campus]]

Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of [[Cameralism]].<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 95–96.</ref> Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 97.</ref>

==Commemoration==
[[File:Råshult 1907.jpg|thumb|left|1907 celebration in [[Råshult]]]]
{{Main|Commemoration of Carl Linnaeus}}

Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations.<ref name="Östholm">[[#Östholm|Östholm (2007)]]</ref> Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and [[banknote]]s.<ref name="Östholm" /> There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The [[Linnean Society of London]] has awarded the [[Linnean Medal]] for excellence in [[botany]] or [[zoology]] since 1888. Following approval by the [[Riksdag of Sweden]], [[Växjö University]] and [[Kalmar College]] merged on 1 January 2010 to become [[Linnaeus University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lnu.se/about-lnu/about-linnaeus-university?l=en |title=A modern, international university in the Småland region of Sweden |publisher=Linnaeus University |access-date=3 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072436/https://lnu.se/about-lnu/about-linnaeus-university?l=en |archive-date=7 February 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other things named after Linnaeus include the twinflower genus ''[[Linnaea]]'', ''[[Linnaeosicyos]]'' (a [[monotypic genus]] in the family [[Cucurbitaceae]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=''Linnaeosicyos'' H.Schaef. & Kocyan {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60448200-2 |website=Plants of the World Online |access-date=27 May 2021 |language=en |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020031301/http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60448200-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> the crater [[Linné (crater)|Linné]] on the Earth's moon, a street in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], and the cobalt sulfide mineral [[Linnaeite]].
{{Clear|left}}

==Commentary==

Linnaeus wrote a description of himself in his autobiography ''Egenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf: med anmärkningar och tillägg'', which was published by his student [[Adam Afzelius]] in 1823:

{{blockquote |Linnaeus was not big, not small, thin, brown-eyed, light, hasty, walked quickly, did everything promptly, could not stand lateness; was quickly moved, sensitive, worked continuously; could not spare himself. He enjoyed good food, drank good drinks; but was never inebriated by them. He cared little for appearance, believed that the man should embellish the clothes and not vice versa. He was certainly not argumentative, so he never answered those who wrote against him, and said: If I am wrong, I will not win and if I am right, I will be shown to be right as long as Nature exists.<ref>Afzelius, A.; Linné, C. ''Egenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf : med anmärkningar och tillägg'' Upsala, Palmblad & C, 1823 p.&nbsp;123 [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/175268#page/179/mode/1up] [https://bioresurs.uu.se/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Linnelektioner_Linnaean_lessons_life_of_linnaeaus.pdf]</ref>}}

[[Andrew Dickson White]] wrote in ''[[A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom]]'' (1896):

{{blockquote |Linnaeus&nbsp;... was the most eminent naturalist of his time, a wide observer, a close thinker; but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had his being was saturated with biblical theology, and this permeated all his thinking.&nbsp;... Toward the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species; and from the last edition of his ''Systema Naturæ'' he quietly left out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each species, which he had insisted upon in his earlier works.&nbsp;... warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant sides.<ref>[[Andrew Dickson White|White, Andrew Dickson]], ''History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/ahistorywarfare00whitgoog Vol.1] pp.&nbsp;59–61</ref>}}

The mathematical [[PageRank]] algorithm, applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014, published in ''[[PLOS ONE]]'' in 2015, placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure, above [[Jesus]], [[Aristotle]], [[Napoleon]], and [[Adolf Hitler]] (in that order).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eom |first1=Young-Ho |last2=Aragón |first2=Pablo |last3=Laniado |first3=David |last4=Kaltenbrunner |first4=Andreas |last5=Vigna |first5=Sebastiano |last6=Shepelyansky |first6=Dima L. |last7=Gao |first7=Zhong-Ke |title=Interactions of Cultures and Top People of Wikipedia from Ranking of 24 Language Editions |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2015 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=e0114825 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0114825 |pmid=25738291 |pmc=4349893 |arxiv=1405.7183 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1014825E |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tamblyn |first1=Thomas |title=Wikipedia Reveals Most Influential Person in History, No It's Not Jesus |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/06/12/wikipedia-most-influential-person-jesus_n_5487516.html |access-date=28 January 2016 |work=HuffPost |date=12 June 2014 |archive-date=2 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202071628/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/06/12/wikipedia-most-influential-person-jesus_n_5487516.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 21st century, [[Scientific racism#Carl Linnaeus|Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races"]] has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of [[scientific racism]], while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others.<ref>Mazzolini, Renato G. (2014) Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology. in: Reproduction, Race, and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences. Ed. Susanne Lettow.</ref><ref>Kennedy, Kenneth A.R. (1976), "Human Variation in Space and Time". Wm. C. Brown Company, p. 25. Kennedy writes that while ''"Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties. It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort."''</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Gould |1981 |p=67}}</ref><ref>Hastings, Rachel N. (2008), "Black Eyez: Memoirs of a Revolutionary", p. 17</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |author-link=Stephen Jay Gould |date=November 1994 |title=The Geometer of Race |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-geometer-of-race |magazine=Discover |pages=65–69 |issn=0274-7529 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120013339/https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-geometer-of-race |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Standard author abbreviation==
{{botanist|L.|border=0}}

== Selected publications by Linnaeus ==
{{main|Carl Linnaeus bibliography}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |year=1735 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |pages=1–12 |location=Leiden |publisher=Haak |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15373 |ref=L1735 |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214150/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15373 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linnaeus |first1=Carl |author2=Hendrik Engel |author3=Maria Sara Johanna Engel-Ledeboer |year=1964 |orig-year=1735 |title=Systema Naturae |edition=facsimile of the 1st |location=Nieuwkoop, Netherlands |publisher=B. de Graaf |oclc=460298195 |ref=Engel|title-link=Systema Naturae }}
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |year=1735 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |pages=1–12 |location=Leiden |publisher=Haak |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15373 |ref=L1735 |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214150/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15373 |url-status=live }}
* Linnaeus, Carl 1846 ''Fauna svecica. Sistens Animalia Sveciae Regni: Quadrupedia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes, distributae per classes & ordines, genera & species''. C. Wishoff & G.J. Wishoff, Lugdnuni Batavorum.
* {{cite book|last1=Linnaeus|first1=Carl|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|year=1755|orig-year=1751|title=Philosophia botanica: in qua explicantur fundamenta botanica cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorum, adiectis figuris aeneis|publisher=Joannis Thomae Trattner|location=Vienna|others=originally published simultaneously by R. Kiesewetter (Stockholm) and Z. Chatelain (Amsterdam)|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophiabotan00linn|ref={{harvid|Linnaeus|1751}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl|year=1753|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|access-date=6 January 2020|archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821070612/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|url-status=live}} ''see also [[Species Plantarum]]''
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |year=1758 |title=Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=1 |edition=[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th]] |pages=[1–4], 1–824 |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |location=Stockholm |url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053006 |ref=L1758 |access-date=19 August 2010 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306222436/http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053006 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last1=Linné|first1=Carl von|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|year=1774|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=Johann Andreas|title=Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)|format=2 vols.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-MVAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich|location=[[Göttingen]]}}
* {{cite book|last1=Linné|first1=Carl von|year=1785|orig-year=1774|trans-title=A System of Vegetables 2 vols. 1783–1785|title=Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)|publisher=Lichfield Botanical Society|location=Lichfield|url=https://archive.org/details/systemofvegeta01linn}}
* {{cite book |last=Linné |first=Carl von |year=1771 |title=Mantissa plantarum altera generum editionis VI et specierum editionis II |url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=947 |pages=[1–7], 144–588 |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |location=Stockholm |ref=L1771 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930150525/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=947 |archive-date=30 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Linnaeus |first1=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |editor1-last=Giseke |editor1-first=Paul Dietrich |editor-link=Paul Dietrich Giseke |title=Praelectiones in ordines naturales plantarum |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/145062 |date=1792 |publisher=Benj. Gottl. Hoffmanni |location=Hamburg }}
{{refend}}

==See also==

{{div col}}
* [[Linnaeus's flower clock]]
* [[Johann Bartsch]], colleague
* ''[[Centuria Insectorum]]''
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Margaret J. |title=Carl Linnaeus: Father of Classification |year=1997 |publisher=Enslow Publishers |location=United States |isbn=978-0-89490-786-9 |ref=Anderson |url=https://archive.org/details/carllinnaeusfath00ande }}
* {{cite book |last=Blunt |first=Wilfrid |title=Linnaeus: the compleat naturalist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3YOvgAACAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |location=London |isbn=978-0-7112-1841-3 |ref=Blunt2001 }}
* {{cite book |last=Blunt |first=Wilfrid |title=Linnaeus: the compleat naturalist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlJgvgAACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |location=London |isbn=978-0-7112-2362-2 |ref=Blunt }}
* {{cite book |last=Bontius |first=J. |author-link=Jacobus Bontius |year=1658 |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/39776 |chapter=Historiae naturalis & medicae Indiae Orientalis libri sex |pages=1–226 |editor=[[Willem Piso|Gulielmo Piso]] |title=De Indiæ Utriusque re naturali et medica libri quatuordecim. Quorum contenta pagina sequens exhibet |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Elzevier |ref=Bontius |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=21 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721224311/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/39776 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Braziel |first=Jana Evans |chapter=Genre, race, erasure: a genealogical critique of "American" autobiography |pages=35–70 |title=Erasing Public Memory: Race, Aesthetics, and Cultural Amnesia in the Americas |editor=Joseph A. Young and Jana Evans Braziel |year=2007 |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-88146-076-6 |ref=Braziel}}
* {{cite book |last=Broberg |first=G. |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |year=1975 |title=''Homo sapiens'' L. studien: Carl von Linné naturuppfattning och människolära |url=https://archive.org/details/homosapienslstud0000brob/ |location=Uppsala |publisher=Almquist and Wiksell |isbn=91-85286-05-2 |ref=Broberg1975 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Broberg |first=Gunnar |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |year=2008 |title=The Dragonslayer |journal=Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek |volume=29 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–43 |url=http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/tvs/vol29/nr01/art03 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130112063158/http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/tvs/vol29/nr01/art03 |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 January 2013 |ref=Broberg2008 }}
* {{cite book |last=Broberg |first=Gunnar |title=Carl Linnaeus |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |year=2006 |publisher=Swedish Institute |location=Stockholm |isbn=978-91-520-0912-3 |ref=Broberg}}
* {{cite book | last1=Davis | first1=P.H. |author1-link= Peter Hadland Davis| last2=Heywood | first2=V H. |author2-link= Vernon Heywood | year=1973 | title=Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy | location=Huntington, New York | publisher=Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company | ref=Davis }}
* {{cite book|last1=Fara|first1=Patricia|author-link=Patricia Fara|title=Sex, Botany and Empire: The Story of Carl Linnaeus and Joseph Banks|date=2003|publisher=Icon Books|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-84046-444-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmhBQAAQBAJ|access-date=22 February 2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frängsmyr |first1=Tore |last2=Lindroth |first2=Sten |last3=Eriksson |first3=Gunnar |last4=Broberg |first4=Gunnar |title=Linnaeus, the man and his work |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrKiQgAACAAJ |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-7112-1841-3 |ref=Frängsmyr }}
* {{cite book|last1=Fries|first1=Theodor Magnus|editor1-last=Jackson|editor1-first=Benjamin Daydon|title=Linnaeus|date=2011|orig-year=1923|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-108-03723-5|language=en|ref=Fries}}
* {{cite book |last=Frodin |first=D.G. |year=2001 |title=Guide to Standard Floras of the World: an Annotated, Geographically Arranged Systematic Bibliography of the Principal Floras, Enumerations, Checklists, and Chorological Atlases of Different Areas |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79077-2 |chapter=The evolution of floras |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMjXCF4rmDUC&pg=PA27 |pages=24–51 |ref=Frodin }}
* {{cite book|last=Gould|first=Stephen Jay|author-link=Stephen Jay Gould|title=The Mismeasure of Man|title-link=The Mismeasure of Man|publisher=W W Norton and Co.|location=New York|year=1981|isbn=978-0-393-01489-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gribbin |first1=Mary |last2=Gribbin |first2=John |title=Flower Hunters |url=https://archive.org/details/flowerhunters0000grib |url-access=registration |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956182-7 |ref=Gribbin }}
* {{cite book |last=Keevak |first=Michael |year=2011 |title=Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-14031-5 |ref=Keevak}}
* {{cite book |last=Koerner |first=Lisbet |author-link=Lisbet Rausing |title=Linnaeus: Nature and Nation |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Harvard |isbn=978-0-674-09745-2 |ref=Koerner |url=https://archive.org/details/linnaeusnaturena00koer_0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Loring Brace |first=C. |year=2005 |title="Race" is a Four Letter Word. The Genesis of the Concept |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517351-2 |ref=Loring}}
* {{cite book |last=Marks |first=Jonathan |chapter=Ten facts about human variation |title=Human Evolutionary Biology |editor1-last=Muehlenbein |editor1-first=Michael |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87948-4 |pages=265–276 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NRf_8gwmO8C&pg=PA265 |ref=Marks }}
* {{cite journal |last=Östholm |first=Hanna |year=2007 |title=The Linnaean Legacy: Three Centuries after his Birth |editor=Mary J. Morris and Leonie Berwick |volume=Special Issue No. 8 |pages=35–44 |journal=The Linnean |url=http://www.linnean.org/fileadmin/images/Linnean/Special_Issue_8_-_The_Linneaen_Legacy.pdf |ref=Östholm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717202527/http://www.linnean.org/fileadmin/images/Linnean/Special_Issue_8_-_The_Linneaen_Legacy.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2011 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Quammen |first=David |author-link=David Quammen |date=June 2007 |title=The Name Giver |journal=National Geographic |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/06/linnaeus-name-giver/david-quammen-text/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415180613/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/06/linnaeus-name-giver/david-quammen-text/1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2010 |access-date=3 April 2010 |ref=Quammen }}
* {{cite book | last1=Reveal | first1=James L. | last2=Pringle | first2=James S. | year=1993 | chapter=7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics | title=Flora of North America | volume=1 | location=New York and Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-505713-3 | ref=Reveal }}
* {{cite book | last=Simpson | first=George Gaylord | orig-year=1961 | title=Principles of Animal Taxonomy |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanim0000simp | url-access=registration | location=New York and London | publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn=9780231024273 | ref=Simpson }}
* {{cite book |last=Slotkin |first=J.S. |year=1965 |title=Readings in early Anthropology |publisher=Methuen Publishing |chapter=The Eighteenth Century |pages=175–243 |ref=Slotkin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sprague |first=T. A. |year=1953 |title=Linnaeus as a nomenclaturist |journal=Taxon |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=40–46 |doi=10.2307/1217339 |jstor=1217339 |ref=Sprague}}
* {{cite book |last=Stace |first=Clive A. |author-link=Clive A. Stace |year=1991 |title=Plant Taxonomy and Biosystematics |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42785-2 |ref=Stace}}
* {{cite book |last=Stafleu |first=Frans A. |author-link=Frans Stafleu |year=1971 |title=Linnaeus and the Linnaeans: the Spreading of their Ideas in Systematic Botany, 1735–1789 |location=Utrecht |publisher=International Association for Plant Taxonomy |isbn=978-90-6046-064-1 |ref=Stafleu}}
* {{cite book |last=Stöver |first=Dietrich Johann Heinrich |title=The life of Sir Charles Linnæus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ogwXAAAAYAAJ |editor=Joseph Trapp |year=1794 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=London |oclc=5660395 |ref=Stöver }}
* {{cite book |author1=Van den Hoek, C. |author2=D.G. Mann |author3=H.M. Jahns  |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Algae: An Introduction to Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-30419-1 |ref=Hoek}}
* {{cite journal |last=Veitch |first=H.J. |author-link=Harry Veitch |year=1897 |title=Nepenthes |journal=Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=226–262 |ref=Veitch}}
* {{cite book |title=The Evolution of Modern Humans in Africa: a Comprehensive Guide |last=Willoughby |first=Pamela |year=2007 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=978-0-7591-0119-7 |ref=Willoughby}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Don E. |author2=DeeAnn M. Reeder |year=2005 |title=Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference |volume=1 |edition=3rd |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8221-0 |ref=Wilson|title-link=Mammal Species of the World }}
* {{cite book |author=Windelspecht, Michael |year=2002 |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31501-5 |ref=Windelspecht}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Broberg |first=Gunnar |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |title=The Man Who Organized Nature: The Life of Linnaeus |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |date=2023 |isbn=9780691213422 |oclc=1346293437 |pages= |translator-first=Anna |translator-last=Paterson |ref=none}} 512 pages. Original book: {{Cite book |title=Mannen som ordnade naturen: En biografi över Carl von Linné |last=Broberg |first=Gunnar |language=sv |publisher=Natur & Kultur |location=Stockholm |isbn=9789127153882 |date=2019 |pages= |ref=none}} 516 pages.<br>Review: {{Cite web |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59854 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122190722/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59854 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |title=Gunnar Broberg. The Man Who Organized Nature: The Life of Linnaeus. Trans. Anna Paterson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2023. Illustrations. 512 pp. $39.95 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-691-21342-2. |access-date=14 September 2024 |first=Hanna |last=Roman |website=h-net.org | date=January 2024 |publisher=H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. Digital Humanities. Michigan State University. |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Brightwell, C.L. |year=1858 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeoflinnaeus00brigiala |title=A Life of Linnaeus |location=London |publisher=J. Van Voorst  |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Edward Lee Greene |year=1912 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/60093#page/9/mode/1up |title=Carolus Linnaeus |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Christopher Sower Company |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=8 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708144855/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/60093#page/9/mode/1up |url-status=live  |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Lys de Bray |year=2001 |title=The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements |pages=62–71 |publisher=Quantum Publishing Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-1-86160-425-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Edmund Otis Hovey |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/bicentenaryofbir00hoveiala |title=The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus |location=New York |publisher=New York Academy of Sciences  |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal|last=George|first=Sam|author-link=Samantha George|title='Not Strictly Proper for a Female Pen': Eighteenth-Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany|journal=Comparative Critical Studies|date=June 2005|volume=2|issue=2|pages=191–210|doi=10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal|last=George|first=Sam|author-link=Samantha George|title=Carl Linnaeus, Erasmus Darwin and Anna Seward: Botanical Poetry and Female Education|journal=Science & Education|date=30 January 2014|volume=23|issue=3|pages=673–694|doi=10.1007/s11191-014-9677-y|bibcode=2014Sc&Ed..23..673G|s2cid=142994653 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author1=Sverker Sörlin |author2=Otto Fagerstedt |title=Linné och hans apostlar |year=2004 |isbn=978-91-27-35590-3 |publisher=Natur & Kultur/Fakta |location=Stockholm |language=sv |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Lucia |last=Albers |year=1982 |chapter=Linnaeus' verblijf op de Hartekamp |title=Het Landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede |location=Heemstede |publisher=Vereniging Oud-Heemstede-Bennebroek |isbn=978-90-70712-01-3 |language=nl |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor=Lars Hansen |title=The Linnaeus Apostles – Global Science & Adventure |series=8 vols. 11 books |location=London & Whitby |publisher=The IK Foundation & Company |year=2007–2011 |isbn=978-1-904145-26-4 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Carl von Linné|Linnaeus}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikispecies}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikivoyage|Carl Linnaeus tourism}}

'''Biographies'''
* [http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/index-en.html Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]]
* [http://linnean.org/index.php?id=47 Biography] at The Linnean Society of London
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Biography] from the [[University of California Museum of Paleontology]]
* A four-minute [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gb_IO-SzLgk biographical video] from the London [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] on YouTube
* [http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/tl-2/browse.cfm?vol=3#page/87 Biography] from Taxonomic Literature, 2nd Edition. 1976–2009.

'''Resources'''
* {{gutenberg author| id=9516| name=Carl von Linné}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* [http://www.linnean.org/ The Linnean Society of London]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181215174247/http://www.linnaeus.info/ The Linnaeus Apostles]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100403064506/http://www.linnean-online.org/ The Linnean Collections]
* [http://linnaeus.c18.net/ The Linnean Correspondence]
* [http://goran.waldeck.se/Ento3E.htm Linnaeus's Disciples and Apostles]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100616073944/http://huntbot.andrew.cmu.edu/HIBD/Departments/Library/LinnaeanDiss.shtml The Linnaean Dissertations]
* [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/botany/fbo/welcome.html.en Linnean Herbarium]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160912071812/http://www.linnaeus2007.se/ The Linnaeus Tercentenary]
* [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/creator/825 Works by Carl von Linné] at the [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]
* [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-32889 Digital edition: "Critica Botanica"] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]
* [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-32631 Digital edition: "Classes plantarum seu systemata plantarum"] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]
* [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/19512 ''Oratio de telluris habitabilis incremento''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029104640/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/19512 |date=29 October 2020 }} (1744) – full digital facsimile from [[Linda Hall Library]]
* The [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7133/index.html 15 March 2007 issue] of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading "Linnaeus's Legacy" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy.

{{Carl Linnaeus}}
{{Linnaeus1758}}
{{Natural history}}
{{Historical definitions of race}}
{{Zoology}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Linnaeus, Carl}}
[[Category:Carl Linnaeus| ]]
[[Category:1707 births]]
[[Category:1778 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century lexicographers]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish male writers]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish botanists]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish nobility|Linne, Carl von]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish physicians]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish writers]]
[[Category:18th-century Swedish zoologists]]
[[Category:18th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University]]
[[Category:Age of Liberty people]]
[[Category:Botanical nomenclature]]
[[Category:Botanists active in Europe]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations]]
[[Category:Burials at Uppsala Cathedral]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Historical definitions of race]]
[[Category:Knights of the Order of the Polar Star]]
[[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]]
[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:People from Älmhult Municipality]]
[[Category:Swedish pteridologists]]
[[Category:Swedish arachnologists]]
[[Category:Swedish autobiographers]]
[[Category:Swedish biologists]]
[[Category:Swedish bryologists]]
[[Category:Swedish entomologists]]
[[Category:Swedish expatriates in the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Swedish Lutherans]]
[[Category:Swedish mammalogists]]
[[Category:Swedish mycologists]]
[[Category:Swedish ornithologists]]
[[Category:Swedish phycologists]]
[[Category:Swedish taxonomists]]
[[Category:Taxon authorities of Hypericum species]]
[[Category:Terminologists]]
[[Category:University of Harderwijk alumni]]
[[Category:Uppsala University alumni]]