Editing Carolinian language

{{Short description|Austronesian language of the Northern Mariana Islands}}
{{Infobox language
|name = Carolinian
|altname = 
|nativename = {{lang|cal|Refaluwasch}}
|states = [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
|region = Saipan, Anatahan, and Agrihan islands, Marianas
|ethnicity = [[Carolinian people|Carolinians]]
|speakers = {{sigfig|3100|2}}
|date = 2000
|ref = e18
|familycolor = Austronesian
|fam2 = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
|fam3 = [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
|fam4 = [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]]
|fam5 = Nuclear Micronesian
|fam6 = [[Chuukic languages|Chuukic]]
|nation = {{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}}
|iso3 = cal
|glotto = caro1242
|glottorefname = Carolinian
}}

'''Carolinian''' is an [[Austronesian language]] originating in the [[Caroline Islands]], but spoken in the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]. It is an official language (alongside English) of the [[Carolinian people]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Carolinian Language|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cal|website=Ethnologue|access-date=31 May 2016}}</ref> Carolinian is a threatened language according to the [[Catalogue of Endangered Languages|Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat)]], but available data is scarce. There are approximately 3,100 native speakers in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carolinian|url=http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/4155|website=The Endangered Language Project|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> Carolinian has 95% lexical similarity with [[Satawalese language|Satawalese]], 88% with [[Woleaian]] and [[Puluwat language|Puluwatese]]; 81% with [[Mortlockese]]; 78% with [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]], 74% with [[Ulithian]].<ref name="Ellis 2012">{{Cite thesis |last=Ellis |first=S. James |title=Saipan Carolinian, one Chuukic language blended from many |date=2012 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |url=http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/JimEllisFinal.pdf |hdl=10125/100894 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2015-08-02 |archive-date=2019-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412072712/http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/JimEllisFinal.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Classification==

The Commonwealth of the [[Northern Marianas]] occupies a chain of 14 islands in the [[Pacific]], approximately 1,300 miles southeast of [[Japan]]. The total land area encompasses 183.5 square miles, and some islands are unpopulated. Most [[Carolinians]] live on [[Saipan]], the largest island, although a very small island, [[Agrigan]], is reported to be populated solely by Carolinians speaking Carolinian language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elameto|first1=Jesus Mareham|title=Linguistic Dimensions of Vernacular Education for Saipan Carolinians|date=1977|publisher=University of Hawaii}}</ref>

'''Carolinian,''' more usually known as [[Saipan]] Carolinian, was born from several languages in the Carolinian [[language continuum]], due to a century of migration from the western Carolinian atolls to the Northern Marianas island of Saipan. Spoken mostly by the [[Carolinian people]], Carolinian is the most closely related dialect to [[Satawalese language|Satawalese]], [[Woleaian language|Woleaian]], and [[Puluwatese language|Puluwatese]] languages. In present day, Carolinian is changing quickly due to influence from [[English language|English]], which has dominated [[Micronesia]] since World War II. There are only a small percentage of Carolinian children left on Saipan who can confidently speak the traditional form of Carolinian.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

==History==

===Early history===
The Carolinian language is derived from closely related languages and dialects within the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] family. The first inhabitants of the [[Caroline Islands]] were the [[Austronesians]], who migrated from [[Taiwanese aborigines|Taiwan]]. European contact with the Caroline Islands began in 1652, and by the late 1600s, the Carolinians were already communicating with Europeans in their native language. Between 1795 and 1797, a [[Spaniards|Spanish]] official on [[Guam]], Don Luis de Torres, studied the Carolinian language and identified its [[dialect continuum]]. Throughout the 1700s, multiple Carolinian drift voyages reached the [[Philippines]] and [[Guam]], spreading Carolinian culture and language across these regions.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

During the 1800s, inter-island travel persisted for various reasons, such as survival, communication, trade, and family relations, thereby maintaining the Carolinian language continuum. The evolution of the Carolinian language continued as the Carolinian people migrated to [[Saipan]] under [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]] occupation. However, after the abandonment of Saipan around 1815, Carolinians had the island largely to themselves, and the first Carolinian-speaking group there became the initial speakers of Saipan Carolinian. Subsequent migrations introduced additional linguistic diversity, blending various languages over time.

Tracing the development of Saipan's language from 1815 to today is challenging due to inconsistent historical records. The Carolinian language on Saipan was in constant flux during the 19th century, shaped by ongoing migrations between Saipan and neighboring atolls. The lack of reliable data makes it difficult to establish a clear historical timeline.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

===Late history===
Significant demographic changes occurred in the Carolinian population of the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] after the 1850s, especially with the arrival of immigrants from atolls east of [[Satawal]]. Between 1865 and 1868, an English entrepreneur, H.G. Johnson, relocated about 1,500 Carolinians to the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]] to work on plantations in [[Guam]], [[Rota (island)|Rota]], and [[Tinian]]. The removal of these Carolinians from their original islands faced push-back up until the end of the 19th century, with groups such as the Spanish showing disapproval until the Tinian Carolinians eventually moved to [[Saipan]].<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

When the [[United States|Americans]] took control of [[Guam]] in 1898, the Carolinians in Maria Cristina village remained there, despite American efforts to make them abandon their traditional dress. Most migrations that shaped the Carolinian community on [[Saipan]] occurred by 1911, with the most significant influx from outer islands happening between 1905 and 1907. During this period, [[Germany|German]] ships transported hundreds of [[Mortlockese language|Mortlockese]] and other atoll dwellers to Saipan due to typhoon devastation on their home islands. However, this migration had minimal impact on the linguistic traits of the Carolinian language, as the new arrivals were settled away from established Carolinian villages. Many of these islanders eventually returned to their original homes once conditions improved, with only a few remaining on Saipan.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

Today, Saipan Carolinians are dispersed throughout the island, including in new homestead areas like Kagman, developed by the government on the eastern shore. The 1970s marked the beginning of a reconnection between Saipan Carolinians and their outer-island roots, notably when a navigator made a voyage from the outer islands to Saipan in 1969 after a lapse of 60 to 70 years. However, the overwhelming influence of the [[United States|U.S.]] and global culture, coupled with the introduction of modern media, has profoundly impacted the Carolinian language. While there remains interest in preserving native languages, the realities of modern life pose significant challenges to these efforts.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

==Cultures==

According to the history of the language, some speakers consider it critical to show respect to the Carolinian culture, in particular for older people. Certain cultural norms may also affect the way the language is spoken. Carolinian women have historically been encouraged to use precise words when speaking to their brothers and other male relatives. It is also said that women are encouraged never to walk in front of male relatives, and to stoop down near male relatives who are sitting.

The Carolinian culture moreover has encouraged separation between genders in certain aspects of life. For example, a brother and sister would be discouraged from sharing dishes, and a dish used by a man should not be used by a woman, except for his mother. Women's bedrooms and private rooms are considered off-limits to male relatives. In certain locales, when a girl gets her first menstrual period, she is taken care of by older women, such as a grandmother, and placed in a special house. She is given orange face-paint, so the whole community will know she has come of age. In [[Saipan]], these practices largely ceased during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. However, many Carolinians still practice these traditions today.

Respect is also expected to be shown between older men and younger men. For instance, younger men are expected not give their opinion in a meeting unless they are invited to do so by older men. Also, a husband is expected to respect his wife's brothers and male relatives. When the in-laws need something, a husband is encouraged to help out. For instance, if they ask to use his car, it is expected that he should let them use it, or he should bring food if there is a family party.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Warakal|first1=Rosa Roppul|last2=Limes|first2=Jose T.|title=Respect in the Carolinian Culture on Saipan|date=1980|publisher=Department of Education, Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands|location=Saipan}}</ref>

==Grammar==

===Phonology===
;Consonant Phonemes Table<ref name="Ellis 2012" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Internal and External Relationships of Trukic Languages of Micronesia|last=Jackson|first=Frederick H.|year=1983|location=University of Hawaii, Manoa}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

! colspan="2" | !! Labial  !! Alveolar  !! Retroflex  !! Palatal  !!  Velar
!Glottal
|-
! rowspan="2" | Stops
!{{Small|plain}}
|  p pː  ||   t tː    ||       ||     ||         kː
|
|-
!{{Small|labial/voiced}}
|bʷˠ, (pʷˠ)
|d
|
|
|ɡ
|
|-
! colspan="2" |   Affricate
| ||           ||    ʈ͡ʂːʲ   ||         ||
|
|-
! colspan="2" |    Fricatives
|    f fː      ||    s sː      ||    ʂ     ||         ||  x
|h
|-
! rowspan="2" |  Nasals
!{{Small|plain}}
|  m mː  ||     n
|        ||          ||     ŋ ŋː
|
|-
!{{Small|labial}}
|mʷˠ mʷˠː
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |  Liquids
| ||  l lː, r   ||          ɻ
|         ||
|
|-
! colspan="2" |   Glides
|   w     ||           ||           ||  j   ||
|
|-
|}
The table shows that alveolar ridge receives tongue-blade contact while the tongue tip makes contact at some place on the teeth.<ref name="Elameto" />
;Vowel Phonemes Table<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

{| class="wikitable"

!      !!  Front  !! Central !! Back !! Diphthongs
|-
! High
|  i  ||    ʉ    || u   ||  iu, eu, æu, ɐu
|-
!  Mid
| e ||   ɵ      ||  o ||  ou, ɒu, ei, æi
|-
! Low
|  æ  ||   ɐ   ||  ɒ ||  ɐi, ui, oi, ɒi
|-
|}

All of the consonants may appear initially, medially, and finally. In the final position, all the obstruents are obligatorily released. All consonants except one are unaspirated, and all stops and /x/ are lenis. The consonants /bw/ and /mw/ have coarticulated labial closure and rounding with a raising of the back of the tongue toward the velum. the /bw/ is usually spirantized to /βw/ medially. The /r/ is a trill, which is voiceless word-finally. Moreover, all of the following single consonants may also be geminate initially, medially and in their abstract representation, finally: /p, t, bw, f, s, m, mw, ŋ, l/. Geminate /bw/ is devoiced. In addition, Carolinian has geminate /kk/ but not single /k/. There are the five consonants /ş, x, r, w, j/, which may be geminated medially in productive reduplication. Geminate obstruents are tense and often give the impression of aspiration.

In addition to its native vocabulary, Carolinian has borrowed considerable vocabulary from Chamorro, English, and Japanese. This has led to the borrowing of some phonemes from these languages as well. Although these phonemes appear only in borrowed words, many of these words undergo regular Carolinian phonological rules, and the international segments are assigned in the same way as native speakers. For example, the Japanese word /{{Transliteration|ja|italic=no|dzori}}/, which means slipper, is borrowed into Carolinian and may be reduplicated. So /dzodzdzoori/ means to be wearing slippers.<ref name="Elameto" />

===Syllable structure===
The classic form of Carolinian syllables is either CV, CVC, CVVC, or CCVC.<ref name="Elameto" />

===Morphology===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Source !! Reduplication  !! Gloss
|-
| loka  || e lollokka  || she is wearing sandals
|-
| xasulis  || e xaxxasulis  || He is wearing pants
|-
| tou  || e tottou    ||  He is stabbing him
|-
| siliila  || e sissiliils  || She is wearing a dress
|-
| sooŋ  || e sossoŋ     || He is (being) angry
|-
| mwuŋo  || e mwumwmwuŋo   || He is eating
|}

===Simple sentence structure===
Carolinian simple sentences contain two major constituents, which are the Subject Noun Phrase and the Predicate Phrase. The word order of Carolinian language is [[Subject–verb–object|Subject-Verb-Object]]. The following are some example simple sentences.<ref name="Elameto" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Subject Noun Phrase
! Predicate Phrase
|-
|  1.
| {{interlinear|Wan|John|John}}
| {{interlinear|e seng|he cries|is crying}}
|-
| 2.
| {{interlinear|Wan|John|John}}
| {{interlinear|e dokto|he doctor|is a doctor}}
|-
| 3.
| {{interlinear|e|he|he}}
| {{interlinear|bwel le-mwungo|aspectual at-eat|begins to eat}}
|-
| 4.
| {{interlinear|E-sáál|{he-not yet}|he hasn't}}
| {{interlinear|mwungo|eaten|eaten yet}}
|-
| 5.
| {{interlinear|I|he|}}
| {{interlinear|e-bwe mwungo|he-will eat|}}
|}

==Vocabulary==
Some researchers indicate that the Carolinian language is part of the western half of the Chuukic continuum. Its closest sister language is usually described as [[Satawalese language|Satawalese]]. Carolinian has more in common with [[Woleaian language|Woleaian-]] [[Mortlockese language|Mortlockese]] than with either [[Puluwat language|Polowat]]-[[Pulusuk]] or [[Satawalese language|Satawalese]], but with Polowat-Pulusuk shows slightly more influence than Satawalese. The lexical stock of [[Chuukic languages]] can help determine Carolinian’s relationship to its source languages, as there is significant diversity among their lexicons. Even though each [[Chuukic languages|Chuukic]] language has a high lexical similarity of nearly 50% with other members of the continuum. the remaining 50% provides enough differences to refine Carolinian’s lines of lexical inheritance.<ref name="Ellis 2012" />

===Past orthographies===
# Most [[Saipan]] Carolinians are bilingual or trilingual. Their writing has reflected many foreign language orthographic systems. Despite the variations of Carolinian writing, the following generalizations can be made. First, the vulgarized consonants / bw, mw, pw / were often written as digraphs when the following vowels are unrounded. However, / w / or / u / was virtually never indicated before rounded vowels or word finally. This phenomenon can be traced to [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] writing, there is a rounded velar glide that occurs only after consonants and only before unrounded vowels. The Carolinians seem to have interpreted their vulgarized consonants as plain consonants followed by glides, like the [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] phones. For instance:
#: {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|libual}} means hole of for / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|libwal}} /, but lib means hole for / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|liibw}} / the form {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|imual}} for / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|imwal}} / means his house, but {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|imom}} / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|imwɔmw}} / means your house, {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|puel}} for / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|pwpwel}} / means dirt, but po for / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|pwo}} / means pound.
# The geminate consonants were not represented initially and finally, though some people wrote geminate consonants medially. This may be a result of [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] influence. The only geminates in [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] are medial and as a consequence only these geminates are reflected in writing. For example:
#: '''pi''' / ppii / means sand
#: '''lepi''', '''leppi''' for / leppi / means beach sand
#: '''mile''', '''mille''' for / mille / means this one
#: '''lol''' for / llɔl / means in it
# Carolinian are used to the 5 vowel symbols of the [[Roman Alphabet|Roman alphabet]]. These were used to identify the 9 distinctive vowels of the Carolinian language.
# Long vowels were not represented maybe due to [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] impact, as there are no distinctive long vowels in that language. For example:
#: '''fi''' / fii / means star
#: '''set''' / sææt / means sea
#: '''il''' for / iil / means mother
# In writing morphophonemic regularities such as the predictable vowel qualities before possessive suffixes, Carolinians paid no attention to the underlying regulations. On the other hand, they focused on the surface phonemes. This is the same as Chamorro practice as well as to most of other [[Micronesia]]n orthographies.
# Directional suffixes were usually attached to the preceding verbs. For instance:
#: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|muatiu}}''' / mɔɔttiu / means sit down
#: '''mela''' / mæællɔ / means die
#: '''touo''' / {{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|towou}} / means get out
# The subject pronoun was almost invariably attached to whichever part of the verb phrase immediately was following. For example, the negative marker, the aspect marker, an aspectual adverb, or the verb itself.
#: '''ese''' / e se / means he not
#: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|ebue}}''' / e bwe / means he will
#: '''eke''', '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|eghal}}''' / e kke, e ghal / means he progressive
#: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|emuel}}''' / e mwmwel / means he can
# When the determines were singular, they were usually connected to the preceding noun. For example:
#:: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|mualue}}''' /mwææl-we/ means that man
#:: '''mualie''' /mwææl-ie/ means this man
#: Plural determiners, which were generally written separated. For example:
#:: '''mual kal''' /{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|mwææl + kkaal}}/ means these men
#:: '''mual kelal''' /mwææl kke + laal/ means those men
#:: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|mual keue}}''' /mwææl kke + we/ means those men in the past
# The longer object pronouns were sometimes separated from the preceding verb stem, while the shorter pronouns are identically attached. For example:
#: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|e weriei}}''' means he sees me
#: '''{{Transliteration|cal|italic=no|e uri ghisch}}''' means he sees us
# Sometimes morphemes were not written if they were phonologically assimilated to other morphemes. For example:
#: '''ito''' for / i + itto / means I come.<ref name="Elameto" />

===Saipan Carolinian Orthography Committee===

A preliminary meeting was called at the Headquarters Education Department conference room on July 21, 1976. The site was decided on since it was equidistant from both the northern and southern Carolinian communities. The meeting was to review the initial steps for setting up an orthography acceptable to both communities and to select the members of the orthography committee. The official orthography conference was held from July 26 to August 4, 1976. The meeting opened with an address by the Director of Education for the Marianas. Mr. Jesus M. Conception, representatives from the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]] Education Department and the [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] Orthography Committee also appeared at the convention on an irregular basis.

This convention decided that no dialect would be chosen as the official dialect for school and government documents. In other words, the committee agreed to pick standard systems of presenting the pronunciations of all three dialects, and Carolinians should use that framework to reflect the specific dialectical pronunciations. School teachers would not have to enforce one dialect but instead, allow students to use the correct spelling for the dialect they speak.<ref name="Elameto">{{cite book|last=Elameto|first=Jesus Mareham|title=Linguistic Dimensions of Vernacular Education for Saipan Carolinians|date=1977|publisher=University of Hawaii}}</ref>

===Alphabet===

There were 28 letters in 1977 and they were expanded to 33 letters in 2004.<ref name="Elameto" />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !!  Phoneme  !! Name of Letter
|-
| a  || /a/  || aa
|-
| á || /æ/   || áá
|-
| e  || /e/  || ee
|-
| ė  || /ʌ/  || ėė
|-
| i  || /i/  || ii
|-
| o  || /o/  || oo
|-
| ó || /ɔ/  || óó
|-
| u || /u/  || uu
|-
| ú || /ʉ/ || úú
|-
| f  || /f/  || fii
|-
| h  || /h/  || hii
|-
| s  || /s/  || sii
|-
| sch  || /ʂ/  || schii
|-
| gh  || /x/  || ghii
|-
| k  || /kː/  || kkii
|-
| l  || /l/  || lii
|-
| m  || /m/  || mii
|-
| mw  || /mʷˠ/  || mwii
|-
| n  || /n/  || nii
|-
| ng  || /ŋ/  || ngii
|-
| p  || /p/  || pii
|-
| pw  || /pʷˠ/  || pwii
|-
| bw  || /bʷˠ/  || bwii
|-
| r  || /r/  || rii
|-
| rh  || /ɻ/  || rhii
|-
| tch  || /ʈ͡ʂːʲ/  || tchii
|-
| t  || /t/  || tii
|-
| w  || /w/  || wii
|-
| b  || /b/  || bii
|-
| d  || /d/  || dii
|-
| g  || /g/  || gii
|-
| y  || /j/  || yii
|-
| z  || /z/  || zii
|}

==Writing system==

Carolinians use a wide range of characteristics in selecting the alphabetic system they use. For example, many of the older Carolinians are at least familiar with German from the German occupation. Depending on their experiences with German, individual people might use umlaut diacritics for the writing some vowels. A German influence can also be detected in the writing of the coronal spirant /s/ as <sch>. However, other speakers use their knowledge of [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] orthography to write Carolinian. As Chamorro has three fewer phonemic vowels than Carolinian and does not include Carolinian's distinctive vowel length, initial consonant gemination, or velarized labials, individual systems based on Chamorro contained many double meanings. However, other Carolinians base their spellings in English.<ref name="Elameto" />

==See also==
* [[Tanapag language]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=Carolinian-English Dictionary|chapter=Front Matter |editor-last1=Jackson|editor-first1=Frederick H.|editor-last2=Marck|editor-first2=Jeffrey C.|collaboration=Elameto JM, Elameto RM, Kaipat AF, Olopai FM, Sarapau MO, Taitano TI, Warakai RR|year=1991|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv9hvsnv.1|series=PALI Language Texts—Micronesia|jstor=j.ctv9hvsnv.1 |isbn=9780824881931|publication-date=2019|last1=Elameto |first1=Jesus Mareham |last2=Elameto |first2=Rosario M. |last3=Kaipat |first3=Antonio Flores |last4=Olopai |first4=Francisco Mettao |last5=Sarapau |first5=Margarita O. |last6=Taitano |first6=Teresa I. |last7=Warakai |first7=Rosa Roppul |pages=i–ii |doi=10.2307/j.ctv9hvsnv.1 }}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Micronesian languages}}
{{Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages}}
{{Languages of the United States}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carolinian Language}}
[[Category:Languages of the Northern Mariana Islands]]
[[Category:Chuukic languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Austronesian languages]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of Oceania]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]