Editing Carpobrotus edulis

{{Short description|Species of succulent}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Hottentot-fig
| image = Carpobrotus edulis on the sand dunes of Waimairi Beach, Christchurch, New Zealand 05.jpg
| image_caption = Flower of ''Carpobrotus edulis''
| genus = Carpobrotus
| species = edulis
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Nicholas Edward Brown|N.E. Br]]
| synonyms = ''Mesembryanthemum edule'' L|
}}

'''''Carpobrotus edulis''''' is a creeping plant with [[succulent]] leaves in the genus ''[[Carpobrotus]]'', native to [[South Africa]]. Its common names include '''hottentot-fig''', '''sour fig''', '''ice plant''', '''highway ice plant''',<ref name="Kruger">{{cite web |title=Hottentots Fig - Flowers |url=http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_hottentots_fig.html |access-date=2021-12-26 |website=[[Kruger Park]]}}</ref><ref name="GISD">{{GISD|1010|''Carpobrotus edulis''}}</ref><ref name="CABI-ISC">{{cite web |date=2019-11-20 |title=''Carpobrotus edulis'' (hottentot fig) |url=http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/10648 |access-date=2021-12-26 |website=CABI [[Invasive Species Compendium]]}}</ref> or '''vygie'''.

== Description ==

''Carpobrotus edulis'' is a creeping, mat-forming [[succulent]] species. It grows year round, with individual shoot segments growing more than 1&nbsp;m (3&nbsp;ft) per year.<!--(D’Antonio 1990b)-->{{citation needed|reason=complete|date=November 2012}} It can grow to at least 50&nbsp;m (165&nbsp;ft) in diameter. The [[leaves]] are a dull-green or yellow-green colour. They are very slightly curved and have serrated sides near the tips.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medicinal plants of Fernkloof |url=http://fernkloof.com/medicinal-plants.mv |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729060500/http://fernkloof.com/medicinal-plants.mv |archive-date=2012-07-29}}</ref>

The yellow flowers are produced from April to October, and range from {{Convert|6.4 to 15.2|cm|abbr=off|frac=2}} in diameter.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Spellenberg |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/nationalaudubons00spel/page/330/ |title=National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region |publisher=Knopf |year=2001 |isbn=978-0375402333 |edition=rev |pages=330–331 |orig-date=1979}}</ref> Two of the calyx lobes are longer, extending further than the petals. The flowers open in the morning in bright sunlight and close at night.<ref name="PZA" /> The [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] is somewhat wedge-shaped, tapering down to the pedicel.<ref>Wisura, W. & Glen, H.F. (1993). The South African species of ''Carpobrotus'' (Mesembryanthema-Aizoaceae). ''Contributions from the Bolus Herbarium'' '''15''':76–107.</ref> The fruit is multi-chambered, ripening from green to yellow.<ref name=":0" />

=== Chemistry ===
''C. edulis'' contains [[rutin]], [[neohesperidin]], [[hyperoside]], [[catechin]] and [[ferulic acid]]; these contribute to the [[antibacterial]]<ref>Purification and identification of active antibacterial components in Carpobrotusedulis L. Elmarie van der Watt and Johan C Pretorius, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, June 2001, Volume 76, Issue 1, pp. 87–91, {{doi|10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00197-0}}</ref> properties of the plant. It also contains [[procyanidin]]s and [[propelargonidin]]s.<ref>LC/ESI-MS/MS characterisation of procyanidins and propelargonidins responsible for the strong antioxidant activity of the edible halophyte Mesembryanthemum edule L. Hanen Falleh, Samia Oueslati, Sylvain Guyot, Alia Ben Dali, Christian Magné, Chedly Abdelly and Riadh Ksouri, {{doi|10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.02.049}}</ref>

=== Similar species ===
The species is easily confused with its close relatives, including the more diminutive and less aggressive ''[[Carpobrotus chilensis]]'' (sea fig), with which it [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridizes]] readily. ''C.&nbsp;edulis'' can, however, be distinguished from most of its relatives by the size and yellow colour of its flowers. The smaller flowers of ''C.&nbsp;chilensis'', {{convert|3.8 to 6.4|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} in diameter, are deep magenta.

== Taxonomy ==
The species is a member of the fig-marigold family, [[Aizoaceae]], one of about 30 species in the genus ''[[Carpobrotus]]''. It was previously classified in ''[[Mesembryanthemum]]'' and is sometimes referred to as ''M.&nbsp;edule''.

== Distribution and habitat ==
The sour fig grows on coastal and inland slopes in [[South Africa]] from [[Namaqualand]] in the Northern Cape through the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape. It is often seen as a pioneer on disturbed sites.

== Ecology ==
The flowers are pollinated by solitary bees, [[honey bee]]s, [[carpenter bee]]s, and many beetle species. Leaves are eaten by tortoises. Flowers are eaten by antelopes and baboons. Fruits are eaten by baboons, rodents, porcupines, antelopes, who also disperse the seeds. The clumps provide shelter for [[snail]]s, [[lizard]]s, and [[skink]]s. [[Bitis|Puff adders]] and other snakes, such as the [[Cape cobra]], are often found in ''Carpobrotus'' clumps, where they ambush the small rodents attracted by the fruits.<ref name="PZA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/carpobed.html|title=Carpobrotus edulis|website=www.plantzafrica.com}}</ref>

=== As an invasive species ===
''Carpobrotus edulis'' has naturalised in many other regions throughout the world, and is an [[invasive species]] in several parts, notably [[Australia]], [[California]] and the [[Mediterranean]], all of which have similar climates. The ice plant has escaped from cultivation and has become invasive, posing a serious ecological problem by forming vast monospecific zones, lowering [[biodiversity]], and competing directly with several threatened or endangered plant species for nutrients, water, light, and space.<ref>(State Resources Agency 1990).{{fcn|date=November 2023}}</ref>

The success of ''C. edulis'' as an invader can be attributed to several key adaptive mechanisms. The plant exhibits a high rate of clonal growth, a trait that is commonly associated with successful invasive species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Portela |first1=Rubén |last2=Barreiro |first2=Rodolfo |last3=Roiloa |first3=Sergio R. |date=January 2019 |title=Biomass partitioning in response to resources availability: A comparison between native and invaded ranges in the clonal invader Carpobrotus edulis |journal=Plant Species Biology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=11–18 |doi=10.1111/1442-1984.12228 |doi-access=free |issn=0913-557X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Yao-Bin |last2=Yu |first2=Fei-Hai |last3=Keser |first3=Lidewij H. |last4=Dawson |first4=Wayne |last5=Fischer |first5=Markus |last6=Dong |first6=Ming |last7=van Kleunen |first7=Mark |date=February 2013 |title=United we stand, divided we fall: a meta-analysis of experiments on clonal integration and its relationship to invasiveness |journal=Oecologia |language=en |volume=171 |issue=2 |pages=317–327 |doi=10.1007/s00442-012-2430-9 |pmid=22915332 |bibcode=2013Oecol.171..317S |s2cid=2929123 |issn=1432-1939|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/38653/ }}</ref> Invasive ice plant also displays high levels of phenotypic plasticity, allowing it to best integrate into varied environmental conditions such as coastal cliff ranges as well as nutrient-rich forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pérez-Diz |first1=Marta |last2=Rodríguez-Addesso |first2=Berea |last3=Hussain |first3=Muhammad Iftikhar |last4=Rodríguez |first4=Jonatan |last5=Novoa |first5=Ana |last6=González |first6=Luís |date=2023-05-15 |title=Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope compositions provide new insights into the phenotypic plasticity of the invasive species Carpobrotus sp. pl. in different coastal habitats |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=873 |pages=162470 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162470 |pmid=36842586 |bibcode= |doi-access=free |issn=0048-9697|hdl=11093/4559 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Such plasticity has raised concerns about its continual spread, especially in the face of changing climatic conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=G. Campoy |first1=Josefina |last2=Lema |first2=Margarita |last3=Fenollosa |first3=Erola |last4=Munné-Bosch |first4=Sergi |last5=Retuerto |first5=Rubén |date=October 2021 |title=Functional responses to climate change may increase invasive potential of Carpobrotus edulis |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=108 |issue=10 |pages=1902–1916 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1745 |pmid=34636413 |doi-access=free |issn=0002-9122|hdl=10347/29048 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> 

Through hybridization, invasive ''C.&nbsp;edulis'' gains genetic diversity and novel traits that further enhance its adaptability.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Suehs |first1=C. M. |last2=Affre |first2=L. |last3=Médail |first3=F. |date=January 2004 |title=Invasion dynamics of two alien Carpobrotus (Aizoaceae) taxa on a Mediterranean island: I. Genetic diversity and introgression |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=31–40 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800374 |pmid=14628076 |doi-access=free |issn=1365-2540}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Schierenbeck |first1=Kristina A. |last2=Symonds |first2=V. Vaughan |last3=Gallagher |first3=Kelly G. |last4=Bell |first4=Jeffrey |date=February 2005 |title=Genetic variation and phylogeographic analyses of two species of Carpobrotus and their hybrids in California |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=539–547 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02417.x |pmid=15660944 |bibcode=2005MolEc..14..539S |s2cid=25384753 |issn=0962-1083}}</ref> The species readily engages in genetic exchanges with other ''Carpobrotus'', such as ''C.&nbsp;chilensis'', leading to hybrid variants with unique genetic combinations that allow them to thrive and outcompete native flora.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ellstrand |first1=Norman C. |last2=Schierenbeck |first2=Kristina A. |date=2000-06-20 |title=Hybridization as a stimulus for the evolution of invasiveness in plants? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7043–7050 |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7043 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=34382 |pmid=10860969|bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7043E }}</ref> Analysis of chloroplast DNA has revealed a large amount of genetic similarities between ''C.&nbsp;edulis'' and ''C.&nbsp;chilensis'', indicating that the two may share a common ancestor.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Hottentots Fig.jpg|thumb|Found at [[Cape Angela]] in [[Bizerte Governorate|Bizerte]], [[Tunisia]], near the Mediterranean Sea]]

==== Ireland ====
Recorded as a garden escape from County Down,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Hackney |editor-first=P. |year=1992 |title=Stewart & Corry's Flora of the North-east of Ireland |publisher=Institute of Irish Studies The Queen's University of Belfast |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0853894469}}</ref> in the south and east<ref>Parnell, J. and Curtis, T. 2012 ''Webb's An Irish Flora.'' Cork University Press. {{ISBN|978-1859184783}}</ref> and on the cliffs of Howth Head, County Dublin.<ref>Dhuill, E.N. and Smyth, N. 2021. "Invasive non-native and alien garden escape plant species on the cliffs of Howth Head, Co. Dublin", ''Irish Naturalists' Journal'' 37(2) 102–110.</ref>

==== Mediterranean ====
On the Mediterranean coast, ''Carpobrotus'' has spread out rapidly and now parts of the coastline are completely covered. Moreover, another invasive species, the [[black rat]], has been shown to enhance the spreading of the ice plant through its feces.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Carpobrotus edulis'' (succulent) |url=http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1010&fr=1&sts= |work=Global Invasive Species Database |publisher=ISSG |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928154922/http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1010&fr=1&sts= |archive-date=2006-09-28}}</ref> As the ice plant represents a food resource for the rat, both benefit from each other which is referred to as invasive [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]].
{{-}}
{{Wide image|Carpo - Bagaud.jpg|600px|Example of an area completely covered with ice plant on a French Mediterranean island, [[Bagaud island]], in the [[Port-Cros National Park]]}}

==== New Zealand ====
In [[New Zealand]] forms monocultures and has taken over vast areas of coastal sand dune ecosystem. ''C. edulis'' and its hybrids are classed as unwanted organisms and are listed on the [[National Pest Plant Accord]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/iceplant|title=Iceplant|date=22 October 2008|publisher=Biosecurity New Zealand|access-date=6 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306072027/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/iceplant|archive-date=6 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== United States ====
[[Image:Iceplant.jpg|thumb|The ice plant forms large monospecific zones.]]

Although the ice plant may have arrived by ship as early as the 16th century,<ref name=AuEdulis>Au, Leakhana. [https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/59508/1/6.1.Au.pdf ''Carpobrotus edulis'' in California Coastal Plant Communities] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091925/https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/59508/1/6.1.Au.pdf |date=December 24, 2013}}, ''Restoration and Reclamation Review'', University of Minnesota, Vol. 6, No. 1, Fall 2000.</ref><ref name="BLM Arcata">{{cite web|title=Hottentot Fig (Carpobrotus edulis)|url=http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/arcata/arcweeds/plants/hotfig.html|website=Bureau of Land Management, Arcata Field Office|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618042553/http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/arcata/arcweeds/plants/hotfig.html|archive-date=2015-06-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''C.&nbsp;edulis'' was actively introduced in the early 1900s to stabilize dunes<ref name=AuEdulis/> and soil along railroad tracks; it was later put to use by [[Caltrans]] for ground cover along freeway embankments.<ref name=AuEdulis/> Thousands of acres were planted in California until the 1970s. It easily spreads by seed (hundreds per fruit) and from segmentation (any shoot segment can produce roots). Its succulent foliage, bright yellow flowers, and resistance to some harsh coastal climatic conditions (salt) have also made it a favored garden plant. The ice plant was, for several decades, widely promoted as an ornamental plant, and it is still available at some nurseries. Ice plant foliage can turn a vibrant red to yellow in color. Despite its use as a soil stabilizer, it actually exacerbates and speeds up [[coastal erosion]]. It holds great masses of water in its leaves, and its roots are very shallow. In the rainy season, the added weight on unstable sandstone slopes and dunes increases the chances of slope collapse and landslides.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}

The ice plant is still abundant along highways, beaches, on military bases, and in other public and private landscapes. It spreads beyond landscape plantings and has invaded foredune, dune scrub, coastal bluff scrub, coastal prairie, and, most recently, maritime [[chaparral]] communities. In California, the ice plant is found in coastal habitats from north of Eureka,  south at least as far as Rosarito in [[Baja California]]. It is intolerant of frost, and is not found far inland or at elevations greater than about 500&nbsp;ft (150&nbsp;m).

Flowering occurs almost year-round, beginning in February in southern California and continuing until the autumn in northern California, with flowers present for at least a few months in any given population.

==== Removal of plants ====
Control of ice plants can be attempted by pulling out individual plants by hand, or with the use of earth-moving machinery such as a [[skid-steer]] or tractor, though it is necessary to remove buried stems, and mulch the [[soil]] to prevent re-establishment. For chemical control, [[glyphosate]] herbicides are used. Because of the high water content of shoot tissues, burning of live or dead plants is not a useful method of control or disposal.

== Uses ==
The fruit is edible<ref name=":0" /> (as with some other members of the family [[Aizoaceae]]), as are its leaves. In South Africa the sour fig's ripe fruit are gathered and either eaten fresh or made into a very tart jam.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

The different parts of ''C. edulis'' are used in different forms in traditional medicine, mainly in South Africa. Mostly, the fruits and flowers are eaten raw or cooked for fungal and bacterial infections.{{cn|date=January 2023}} The leaves can be ingested orally for digestive problems or the juice can be sucked out to help a sore throat.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=Carpobrotus edulis – Useful Tropical Plants|url=http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Carpobrotus+edulis|access-date=2020-11-09|website=tropical.theferns.info}}</ref> The juice can also be mixed into a lotion base and used for external issues such as ringworm, bruises, sunburns, and cracked lips.<ref name=":02" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/species/carpobrotus_edulis.htm ''Carpobrotus edulis''] at the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry
* [https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=1660 Calflora invasive plants]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1368577}}

[[Category:Carpobrotus|edulis]]
[[Category:Endemic flora of the Cape Provinces]]
[[Category:Fynbos]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Africa]]
[[Category:Drought-tolerant plants]]
[[Category:Edible plants]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Groundcovers]]
[[Category:Taxa named by N. E. Brown]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1759]]