Editing Centipede

{{Short description|Many-legged arthropods with elongated bodies}}
{{other uses}}
{{good article}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|fossil_range      = {{Fossil range|430|0}}<small>Late [[Silurian]] to [[Holocene|present]]</small>
|image             = Chilopoda collage.png
|image_caption     = Various centipedes (clockwise from top left): ''[[Thereuopoda clunifera]]'', a Scutigeromorph; ''[[Lithobius forficatus]]'', a Lithobiomorph; ''[[Geophilus]]'', a Geophilomorph; and ''[[Scolopendra cataracta]]'', a Scolopendromorph
|taxon             = Chilopoda
|authority         = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1817
|subdivision_ranks = Orders and suborders
|subdivision       = *[[Notostigmophora]]
**[[Scutigeromorpha]]
*[[Pleurostigmophora]]
**[[Lithobiomorpha]]
**[[Craterostigmomorpha]]
**[[Extinct|†]][[Devonobiomorpha]]
**[[Scolopendromorpha]]
**[[Geophilomorpha]]
***[[Adesmata]]
***[[Placodesmata]]
}}

'''Centipedes''' (from [[Neo-Latin]] {{lang|la|[[wikt:centi-|centi-]]}}, "hundred", and [[Latin language|Latin]] {{lang|la|[[:wikt:pes|pes, pedis]]}}, "[[foot]]") are [[predator]]y [[arthropod]]s belonging to the class '''Chilopoda''' ([[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:χεῖλος|χεῖλος]]}},  ''kheilos'', "lip", and [[Neo-Latin]] suffix {{lang|la|[[wikt:-poda|-poda]]}}, "foot", describing the [[forcipules]]) of the subphylum [[Myriapoda]], an arthropod group which includes [[millipede]]s and other multi-legged animals. Centipedes are elongated segmented ([[Metamerism (biology)|metameric]]) animals with one pair of legs per body segment. All centipedes are [[venom]]ous and can inflict painful [[centipede bite|stings]], injecting their [[venom]] through [[Pincer (biology)|pincer-like]] [[appendages]] known as [[forcipules]] or toxicognaths, which are actually modified legs instead of [[fangs]]. Despite the name, no species of centipede has exactly 100 legs; the number of pairs of legs is an odd number that ranges from 15 pairs to 191 pairs.<ref name="Edgecombe Giribet 2007"/>

Centipedes are predominantly [[generalist (biology)|generalist]] [[carnivore|carnivorous]], hunting for a variety of prey items that can be overpowered. They have a wide geographical range, which can be found in terrestrial habitats from [[tropical rainforest]]s to [[desert]]s. Within these habitats, centipedes require a moist microhabitat because they lack the waxy [[Arthropod cuticle|cuticle]] of [[insect]]s and [[arachnid]]s, causing them to rapidly lose water. Accordingly, they avoid direct sunlight by staying under cover or by being [[Nocturnality|active at night]].

== Description ==

Centipedes have a rounded or flattened head, bearing a pair of [[antenna (biology)|antennae]] at the forward margin. They have a pair of elongated [[mandible (arthropod)|mandibles]], and two pairs of [[maxilla (arthropod)|maxillae]]. The first pair of maxillae form the lower lip, and bear short [[palp]]s. The first pair of limbs stretch forward from the body over the mouth. These limbs, or forcipules, end in sharp claws and include venom glands that help the animal to kill or paralyze its prey.<ref name="IZ">{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Robert D. |year=1982 |title=Invertebrate Zoology |publisher=Holt-Saunders International |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |pages=810–816 |isbn=978-0-03-056747-6}}</ref>

Their size ranges from a few millimetres in the smaller [[Lithobiomorpha|lithobiomorphs]] and [[Geophilomorpha|geophilomorphs]] to about {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}} in the largest [[Scolopendromorpha|scolopendromorphs]].<ref name="Minelli Golovatch 2017">{{cite book |last1=Minelli |first1=A. |last2=Golovatch |first2=S. I. |title=Reference Module in Life Sciences |chapter=Myriapods |publisher=Elsevier |year=2017 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-809633-8.02259-7|isbn=978-0-12-809633-8 }}</ref>

=== Sensory organs ===

Many species of centipedes lack eyes, some lack one only, but some possess a variable number of [[ocelli]], sometimes clustered together to form true [[compound eye]]s. However, these eyes are only capable of discerning light from dark, and provide no true vision. In some species, the first pair of legs can function as sensory organs, similar to antennae; unlike the antennae of most other invertebrates, these point backwards. An unusual clustering of sensory organs found in some centipedes is the [[organ of Tömösváry]]. The organs, at the base of the antennae, consist of a disc-like structure and a central pore, with an encircling of sensitive cells. They are likely used for sensing vibrations, and may provide a weak form of hearing.<ref name="IZ"/>

=== Forcipules ===
{{main|Forcipule}}

[[File:Eupolybothrus_cavernicolus_forcipules.jpg|thumb|The [[forcipule]]s of ''[[Eupolybothrus cavernicolus]]'' ([[Lithobiidae]])]]

Forcipules are unique to centipedes. The forcipules are modifications of the first pair of [[arthropod leg|legs]] (the maxillipeds), forming a [[pincer (biology)|pincer]]-like [[appendage]], just behind the head. Forcipules are not oral [[Arthropod mouthparts|mouthparts]], though they are used to subdue prey by injecting venom and gripping the prey animal. Venom glands run through a tube, from inside the head to the tip of each forcipule.<ref name="Dugon Black Wallace 2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Dugon |first1=Michel M. |last2=Black |first2=Alexander |last3=Arthur |first3=Wallace |date=2012-05-01 |title=Variation and specialisation of the forcipular apparatus of centipedes (Arthropoda: Chilopoda): A comparative morphometric and microscopic investigation of an evolutionary novelty |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1467803912000151 |journal=Arthropod Structure & Development |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=231–243 |doi=10.1016/j.asd.2012.02.001 |pmid=22370199 |bibcode=2012ArtSD..41..231D |issn=1467-8039|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Body ===

Behind the head, the body consists of at least fifteen segments. Most of the segments bear a single pair of legs; the [[wikt:maxilliped|maxilliped]]s project forward from the first body segment, while the final two segments are small and legless. Each pair of legs is slightly longer than the pair preceding them, ensuring that they do not overlap, which reduces the chance that they will collide and trip the animal. The last pair of legs may be as much as twice the length of the first pair. The final segment bears a [[telson]], and includes the openings of the reproductive organs.<ref name=IZ/>

Centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a [[invertebrate trachea|tracheal system]], typically with a single opening, or [[Spiracle (arthropods)|spiracle]], on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of [[malpighian tubule]]s.<ref name=IZ/>

=== Ultimate legs ===
{{main|Ultimate legs}}

[[File:Centipede_ultimate_legs_collage.jpg|thumb|A collage showing the ultimate legs of various centipedes. From top left, proceeding clockwise: ''[[Rhysida]]'' spp., ''[[Scolopocryptops]] trogloclaudatus, [[Scolopendra dehaani]], [[Lithobius proximus]], [[Lithobius forficatus]], [[Scolopendra cingulata]].'']]

Just as the first pair of legs are modified into forcipules, the back legs are modified into "ultimate legs", also called anal legs, caudal legs, and terminal legs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonato |first1=Lucio |last2=Edgecombe |first2=Gregory |last3=Lewis |first3=John |last4=Minelli |first4=Alessandro |last5=Pereira |first5=Luis |last6=Shelley |first6=Rowland |last7=Zapparoli |first7=Marzio |date=2010-11-18 |title=A common terminology for the external anatomy of centipedes (Chilopoda) |journal=ZooKeys |issue=69 |pages=17–51 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.69.737 |issn=1313-2970 |pmc=3088443 |pmid=21594038|doi-access=free |bibcode=2010ZooK...69...17B }}</ref> Their use varies between species, but does not include locomotion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kenning |first1=Matthes |last2=Müller |first2=Carsten H. G. |last3=Sombke |first3=Andy |date=2017-11-14 |title=The ultimate legs of Chilopoda (Myriapoda): a review on their morphological disparity and functional variability |journal=PeerJ |volume=5 |pages=e4023 |doi=10.7717/peerj.4023 |pmid=29158971 |pmc=5691793 |issn=2167-8359 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kenning |first1=Matthes |last2=Schendel |first2=Vanessa |last3=Müller |first3=Carsten H. G. |last4=Sombke |first4=Andy |date=2019 |title=Comparative morphology of ultimate and walking legs in the centipede Lithobius forficatus (Myriapoda) with functional implications |journal=Zoological Letters |volume=5 |pages=3 |doi=10.1186/s40851-018-0115-x |issn=2056-306X |pmc=6330759 |pmid=30656061 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The ultimate legs may be elongated and thin, thickened, or pincer-like.<ref name=":1"/> They are frequently [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], and may play a role in mating rituals.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> Because glandular pores occur more frequently on ultimate legs than on the "walking" legs, they may serve a sensory role.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> They are sometimes used in defensive postures, and some species use them to capture prey, defend themselves against predators, or suspend themselves from objects such as branches, using the legs as pincers.<ref name=":0"/> Several species use their ultimate legs upon encountering another centipede, trying to grab the body of the other centipede.<ref name=":2"/>

Members of the genus ''[[Alipes (centipede)|Alipes]]'' can [[stridulate]] their leaf-like ultimate legs to distract or threaten predators.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Kronmüller |first1=Christian |last2=Lewis |first2=John G. J. |date=2015-06-30 |title=On the function of the ultimate legs of some Scolopendridae (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha) |journal=ZooKeys |issue=510 |pages=269–278 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.510.8674 |issn=1313-2970 |pmc=4523778 |pmid=26257548|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015ZooK..510..269K }}</ref> ''[[Rhysida immarginata|Rhysida immarginata togoensis]]'' makes a faint creaking sound when it swings its ultimate legs.<ref name=":2"/>

=== Distinction from millipedes ===

There are many differences between millipedes and centipedes.<ref name="Shelley 1999">{{cite journal |last=Shelley |first=Rowland M. |title=Centipedes and millipedes with emphasis on North American fauna |journal=The Kansas School Naturalist |year=1999 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=1–16 |url=http://www.emporia.edu/ksn/v45n3-march1999/ |access-date=2013-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112025334/http://www.emporia.edu/ksn/v45n3-march1999/ |archive-date=2016-11-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Both groups of myriapods have long, multi-segmented bodies, many legs, a single pair of antennae, and the presence of [[Tömösváry organ|postantennal organ]]s. Centipedes have one pair of legs per segment, while millipedes have two. Their heads differ in that millipedes have short, elbowed [[Antenna (biology)|antenna]]e, a pair of robust mandibles and a single pair of maxillae fused into a lip; centipedes have long, threadlike antennae, a pair of small mandibles, two pairs of maxillae and a pair of large venom claws.<ref name=Blower>{{cite book|author=Blower, John Gordon |title=Millipedes: Keys and Notes for the Identification of the Species |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQsVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 |year=1985 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=978-90-04-07698-3 |page=1}}</ref>

[[File:Millipede centipede side-by-side.png|thumb|upright|alt=Millipede and centipede|A representative millipede and centipede (not necessarily to scale)]]

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Millipede versus centipede differences<ref name="Shelley 1999"/>
! Trait
! [[Millipede]]s
! Centipedes
|- 
! Legs
|Two pairs on most body segments; attached to underside of body
|One pair per body segment; attached to sides of body; last pair extends backwards
|- 
! Locomotion
|Generally adapted for burrowing or inhabiting small crevices; slow-moving
|Generally adapted for running, except for the burrowing [[Geophilomorpha|soil centipedes]]
|- 
! Feeding
|Primarily [[detritivore]]s, some [[herbivore]]s, few [[carnivore]]s; no venom
|Primarily carnivores with front legs modified into venomous fangs
|- 
! Spiracles
|On underside of body
|On the sides or top of body
|- 
! Reproductive openings
|Third body segment
|Last body segment	
|- 
! Reproductive behaviour
|Male generally inserts [[spermatophore]] into female, using his [[gonopod]]s
|Male produces spermatophore that is usually picked up by female
|}

== Life cycle ==

=== Reproduction ===
[[File:Strigeria Centipede guarding eggs.jpg|thumb|A centipede mother protecting her first [[instar]] offspring]]

Centipede reproduction does not involve copulation. Males deposit a [[spermatophore]] for the female to take up. In temperate areas, egg laying occurs in spring and summer. A few [[parthenogenetic]] species are known.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=252–298}} Females provide parental care, both by curling their bodies around eggs and young, and by grooming them, probably to remove fungi and bacteria.<ref name="Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum"/>

Centipedes are longer-lived than insects; the European ''[[Lithobius forficatus]]'' may live for 5 to 6 years,{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=328}} and the wide-ranging ''[[Scolopendra subspinipes]]'' can live for over 10 years.<ref name="Hawaii">{{cite web |last1=Yates III |first1=Julian R. |url=http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/urban/Site/Centip.htm |title=''Scolopendra subspinipes'' (Leach) |website=[[University of Hawaii]] EXTension ENTOmology & UH-CTAHR Integrated Pest Management Program: Knowledge Master |date=December 1992 |access-date=2016-12-24}}</ref> The combination of a small number of eggs laid, long gestation period, and long time of development to reproduction has led authors to label lithobiomorph centipedes as [[r/K selection theory|K-selected]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Albert |first=A. M. |editor-last=Camatini |editor-first=Marina |year=1979 |chapter=Chilopoda as part of the predatory macroarthropod fauna in forests: abundance, life-cycle, biomass, and metabolism |title=Myriapod biology |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-155750-8 |pages=215–231}}</ref>

=== Development ===
{{further|Evolutionary developmental biology}}

Centipedes grow their legs at different points in their development. In the primitive condition, seen in the orders [[Lithobiomorpha]], [[Scutigeromorpha]], and [[Craterostigmomorpha]], development is [[Anamorphosis (biology)|anamorphic]]: more segments and pairs of legs are grown between [[ecdysis|moults]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fusco |first=Giuseppe |title=Trunk segment numbers and sequential segmentation in myriapods. |journal=Evolution & Development |date=December 2005 |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=608–617 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-142X.2005.05064.x |pmid=16336414 |s2cid=21401688 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1525-142X.2005.05064.x |access-date=25 August 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, ''[[Scutigera coleoptrata]]'', the house centipede, hatches with only four pairs of legs and in successive moults has 5, 7, 9, 11, 15, 15, 15 and 15 pairs respectively, before becoming a sexually mature adult. Life stages with fewer than 15 pairs of legs are called larval stadia (there are about five stages). After the full complement of legs is achieved, the now postlarval stadia (about five more stages) develop gonopods, sensory pores, more antennal segments, and more ocelli. All mature lithobiomorph centipedes have 15 leg-bearing segments.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=27}} The Craterostigmomorpha only have one phase of anamorphosis, with embryos having 12 pairs, and adults 15.<ref name="Edgecombe Giribet 2007"/>

The [[clade]] Epimorpha, consisting of the orders [[Geophilomorpha]] and [[Scolopendromorpha]], is epimorphic, meaning that all pairs of legs are developed in the embryonic stages, and offspring do not develop more legs between moults. This clade contains the longest centipedes. In the Geophilomorpha, the number of [[Thorax (arthropod anatomy)|thoracic]] segments usually varies within species, often on a geographical basis, and in most cases, females bear more legs than males. The number of leg-bearing segments varies within each order (usually 21 or 23 in the Scolopendromorpha; from 27 to 191 in the Geophilomorpha),<ref name=":5">{{Citation |title=Chilopoda – Taxonomic overview |date=2011-01-01 |work=Treatise on Zoology - Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Volume 1 |pages=363–443 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004188266/B9789004188266_020.xml |access-date=2024-02-29 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004188266_020 |isbn=978-90-04-18826-6 |editor-last1=Minelli |editor-first1=Alessandro |url-access=subscription }}</ref> but the total number of pairs is always odd, so there are never exactly 100 legs or 100 pairs, despite the group's common name.<ref name="Edgecombe Giribet 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Edgecombe |first1=Gregory D. |last2=Giribet |first2=Gonzalo |title=Evolutionary biology of centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda) |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |year=2007 |pages=151–170 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091326 |pmid=16872257 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6914719 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Arthur |first=Wallace |year=2002 |title=The interaction between developmental bias and natural selection from centipede segmentation to a general hypothesis |journal=[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]] |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=239–246 |pmid=12242638 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800139 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arthur |first1=Wallace |last2=Chapman |first2=Ariel D. |year=2005 |title=The centipede ''Strigamia maritima'': what it can tell us about development and evolution of segmentation |journal=[[BioEssays]] |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=653–660 |pmid=15892117 |doi=10.1002/bies.20234}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Minelli |first=Alessandro |editor1-last=Ayala |editor1-first=Francisco J. |editor2-last=Arp |editor2-first=Robert |title=Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Biology |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5999-9 |pages=213–226 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4p6sGSjdVxUC&pg=PA218 |chapter=Evolutionary developmental biology does not offer a significant challenge to the neo-Darwinian paradigm}}</ref>

Centipede segments are developed in two phases. Firstly, the head gives rise to a fixed but odd number of segments, driven by [[Hox gene]]s as in all arthropods.<ref name="Held 2014"/><ref name="Hughes Kaufman 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Cynthia L. |last2=Kaufman |first2=Thomas C. |title=Exploring the myriapod body plan: expression patterns of the ten Hox genes in a centipede |journal=Development |date=2002 |volume=129 |issue=5 |pages=1225–1238 |doi=10.1242/dev.129.5.1225 |pmid=11874918 |url=https://dev.biologists.org/content/develop/129/5/1225.full.pdf |access-date=2023-05-03 |archive-date=2019-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823081013/https://dev.biologists.org/content/develop/129/5/1225.full.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Secondly, pairs of segments are added at the tail (posterior) end by the creation of a prepattern unit, a double segment, which is then always divided into two. The repeated creation of these prepattern units is driven by an oscillator clock, implemented with the [[Notch signaling pathway#Segmentation|Notch signalling pathway]]. The segments are [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] with the legs of other arthropods such as [[trilobite]]s; it would be sufficient for the Notch clock [[Heterochrony#Mechanisms|to run faster]], as it does in [[snake]]s, to create more legs.<ref name="Held 2014">{{cite book |last=Held |first=Lewis I. |author-link=Lewis I. Held |chapter=Why the centipede has odd segments |title=How the Snake Lost its Legs. Curious Tales from the Frontier of Evo-Devo |date=2014 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-62139-8 |pages=69, 120 |title-link=How the Snake Lost its Legs }}</ref>

== Ecology ==

=== Diet ===

Centipedes are predominantly [[generalist and specialist species|generalist]] predators, which means they are adapted to eat a broad range of prey.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=168}} Common prey items include [[Lumbricidae|lumbricid]] earthworms, [[diptera]]n fly larvae, [[collembola]]ns, and other centipedes.<ref name="Klarner Winkelmann Krashevska Maraun 2017 p=e0180915">{{cite journal |last1=Klarner |first1=Bernhard |last2=Winkelmann |first2=Helge |last3=Krashevska |first3=Valentyna |last4=Maraun |first4=Mark |last5=Widyastuti |first5=Rahayu |last6=Scheu |first6=Stefan |title=Trophic niches, diversity and community composition of invertebrate top predators (Chilopoda) as affected by conversion of tropical lowland rainforest in Sumatra (Indonesia) |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=8 |date=2017-08-01 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0180915 |page=e0180915|pmid=28763453 |pmc=5538669 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1280915K |doi-access=free }}</ref> They are carnivorous; study of gut contents suggests that plant material is an unimportant part of their diets, although they eat vegetable matter when starved during laboratory experiments.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=168}}

Species of ''Scolopendromorph'', noticeably members from the genera ''[[Scolopendra]]'' and ''[[Ethmostigmus]]'', are able to hunt for substantial prey items, including large invertebrates and sizable vertebrates, which could be larger than the myriapod itself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Halpin |first1=Luke R. |last2=Terrington |first2=Daniel I. |last3=Jones |first3=Holly P. |last4=Mott |first4=Rowan |last5=Wong |first5=Wei Wen |last6=Dow |first6=David C. |last7=Carlile |first7=Nicholas |last8=Clarke |first8=Rohan H. |date=2021-08-03 |title=Arthropod Predation of Vertebrates Structures Trophic Dynamics in Island Ecosystems |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=198 |issue=4 |pages=540–550 |doi=10.1086/715702 |pmid=34559614 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ANat..198..540H }}</ref><ref name="predatorybehavior">{{cite journal |last1=P. G. Guizze1|first1=Samuel|last2=Knysak1|first2=Irene|last3=C. Barbaro|first3=Katia |last4=Karam-Gemael|first4=Manoela|last5=Chagas-Jr|first5=Amazonas|title=Predatory behavior of three centipede species of the order Scolopendromorpha (Arthropoda: Myriapoda: Chilopoda)|journal=Zoologia |volume=33|issue=6 |date=2016-11-26|issn= |doi= 10.1590/S1984-4689zool-20160026 |page=e20160026|pmid= |pmc=|bibcode= |doi-access=free }}</ref> For instance, ''[[Scolopendra gigantea]]'' (the Amazonian giant centipede) preys on [[tarantulas]], [[scorpions]], [[lizards]], [[frogs]], [[birds]], [[mice]], [[snakes]], and even [[bats]], catching them in midflight.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Molinari |first1=Jesús |last2=Gutiérrez |first2=Eliécer E. |last3=de Ascenção |first3=Antonio A. |last4=Nassar |first4=Jafet M. |last5=Arends |first5=Alexis |last6=Márquez |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2005 |title=Predation by giant centipedes, ''Scolopendra gigantea'', on three species of bats in a Venezuelan cave |url=http://www.caribjsci.org/aug05/41_340-346.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Caribbean Journal of Science]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=340–346 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009003226/http://caribjsci.org/aug05/41_340-346.pdf |archive-date=2010-10-09 |access-date=2011-02-20}}</ref> Three species (''[[Scolopendra cataracta]]'', ''[[Scolopendra paradoxa|S. paradoxa]]'', and ''[[Scolopendra alcyona|S. alcyona]]'') are amphibious, believed to hunt aquatic or amphibious invertebrates.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jul/01/giant-swimming-venomous-centipede-found-south-east-asia |title=Giant swimming, venomous centipede discovered by accident in world-first |last=Holmes |first=O. |date=1 July 2016 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=1 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="Zootaxa">{{Cite web |last=Sho |first=T. |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.4952.3.3 |title=A new amphibious species of the genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 (Scolopendromorpha, Scolopendridae) from the Ryukyu Archipelago and Taiwan |date=12 April 2021 |website=Biotaxa |access-date=2022-01-10}}></ref>

=== Predators ===

[[File:European roller.jpg|thumb|A centipede (''[[Scolopendra cingulata]]'') being eaten by a [[European roller]]]]

Many larger animals prey upon centipedes, such as [[mongoose]]s, [[mice]], [[salamander]]s, [[beetle]]s and some specialist [[snake]] species.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=354–356}} They form an important item of diet for many species and the staple diet of some such as the African ant ''[[Amblyopone pluto]]'', which feeds solely on geophilomorph centipedes,<ref name="Ants">{{cite book |last1=Hölldobler |first1=Bert |author-link1=Bert Hölldobler |last2=Wilson |first2=Edward O. |author-link2=Edward O. Wilson |title=The Ants |year=1990 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-04075-5 |chapter=The specialized predators |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/557 557–572] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-7TaridBX0C |url=https://archive.org/details/ants0000hlld/page/557 }}</ref> and the South African Cape black-headed snake ''[[Aparallactus capensis]]''.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=354–356}}

=== Defences ===
{{further|Anti-predator adaptations}}

Some Geophilomorph, Lithobiomorph, and Scolopendromorph centipedes produce sticky, toxic secretions to defend themselves. The various secretions ward off or entangle predators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Jörg |last2=Müller |first2=Carsten |date=2009-12-15 |title=Morphology in Chilopoda – a survey |url=http://soil-organisms.org/index.php/SO/article/view/224 |journal=Soil Organisms |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=1–55–1–55 |issn=2509-9523}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Eisner |first1=Thomas |author1-link=Thomas Eisner |last2=Eisner |first2=Maria |last3=Siegler |first3=Melody |title=Secret weapons: defenses of insects, spiders, scorpions and other many-legged creatures |year=2005 |publisher=The Belknap Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-01882-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/secretweaponsdef00eisn/page/33 33–36] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/secretweaponsdef00eisn/page/33 }}</ref> Scolopendromorph secretions contain [[hydrogen cyanide]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maschwitz |first1=U. |last2=Lauschke |first2=Ursula |last3=Würmli |first3=M. |date=1979-11-01 |title=Hydrogen cyanide-producing glands in a scolopender, Asanada n.sp. (Chilopoda, scolopendridae) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00990212 |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=901–907 |doi=10.1007/BF00990212 |bibcode=1979JCEco...5..901M |s2cid=29951682 |issn=1573-1561|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Among Geophilomorphs, the secretions of ''Geophilus vittatus'' are sticky and odorous, and contain hydrogen cyanide.<ref name="Jones Conner Meinwald Eisner 1976 pp. 421–429">{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Tappey H. |last2=Conner |first2=William E. |last3=Meinwald |first3=Jerrold |last4=Eisner |first4=Hans E. |last5=Eisner |first5=Thomas |title=Benzoyl cyanide and mandelonitrile in the cyanogenetic secretion of a centipede |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1976 |issn=0098-0331 |doi=10.1007/bf00988807 |pages=421–429|bibcode=1976JCEco...2..421J |s2cid=20051462 }}</ref>

The giant desert centipede of Arizona, ''[[Scolopendra polymorpha]]'', has a black head and tail, and an orange body; this conspicuous pattern may<!--does not seem to have been proven--> be [[Aposematism|aposematic]], an honest signal of the animal's toxicity.<ref name="Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum">{{cite web |last=Lizotte |first=Renée |title=Centipedes & Millipedes |url=https://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_centipede.php |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |access-date=2 May 2023}}</ref> Many species raise and splay their ultimate legs and display the spines found on the legs in a defensive threat posture.<ref name=":2"/>

=== Habitat and behaviour ===

Because centipedes lack the waxy water-resistant [[cuticle]] of other arthropods, they are more susceptible to water loss via evaporation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-17 |title=Insects, Spiders, Centipedes, Millipedes |url=https://www.nps.gov/ever/learn/nature/insects.htm |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=National Park Service|language=en}}</ref> Thus, centipedes are most commonly found in high-humidity environments to avoid dehydration,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewbart |first=Gregory A. |url=https://www.academia.edu/40162238 |page=198 |title=Invertebrate Medicine |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8138-1844-3}}</ref> and are mostly [[nocturnality|nocturnal]].<ref name="Hasan Hassan 2004 pp. 550–551">{{cite journal |last1=Hasan |first1=Shadi |last2=Hassan |first2=Kamal |title=Proteinuria associated with centipede bite |journal=Pediatric Nephrology |volume=20 |issue=4 |date=2004-12-15 |issn=0931-041X |doi=10.1007/s00467-004-1685-8 |pages=550–551|pmid=15599772 |s2cid=3120582 }}</ref>

Centipedes live in many different habitats including in soil and leaf litter; they are found in environments as varied as tropical rain forests,<ref name="Klarner Winkelmann Krashevska Maraun 2017 p=e0180915"/> deserts,<ref>{{cite web |title=Animal Fact Sheet: Desert Centipede |url=https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Desert%20Centipede.php |publisher=Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum |access-date=2 May 2023}}</ref> and caves.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dunning |first1=Hayley |title=Cave centipede from hell is the deepest-dwelling ever discovered |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2015/july/cave-centipede-hell-deepest-dwelling-ever-discovered.html |publisher=Natural History Museum |access-date=2 May 2023 |date=1 July 2015}}</ref> Some geophilomorphs are adapted to [[littoral]] habitats, where they feed on [[barnacle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lewis |first=J. G. E. |year=1961 |title=The life history and ecology of the littoral centipede ''Strigamia maritima'' (Leach) |journal=[[Journal of Zoology|Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London]] |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=221–248 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1961.tb05900.x}}</ref>

=== Threatened species ===
According to the [[IUCN Red List]], there are one [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]], six [[endangered species|endangered]], and three [[Critically Endangered|critically endangered]] species of centipede.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2024 |title=IUCN 2024 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=100034&searchType=species |website=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species}}</ref> For example, the [[Scolopendra abnormis|Serpent Island centipede]] (''Scolopendra abnormis)'' is vulnerable, and [[Nothogeophilus turki|Turk's earth centipede]] ''(Nothogeophilus turki)'' and the [[Seychellonema gerlachi|Seychelles long-legged centipede]] (''Seychellonema gerlachi)'' are both endangered.<ref>Pearce-Kelly, P. 1996. [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/20042/9138315 ''Scolopendra abnormis''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 1996]: e.T20042A9138315. {{doi|10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T20042A9138315.en}}. Accessed on 10 January 2023.</ref><ref>Macadam, C. 2022. [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/123669218/123674269 ''Nothogeophilus turki''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2022]: e.T123669218A123674269. {{doi|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T123669218A123674269.en}}. Accessed on 10 January 2023.</ref><ref>Gerlach, J. 2014. [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/201495/15280805 ''Seychellonema gerlachi''. ''The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species'' 2014]: e.T201495A15280805. {{doi|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T201495A15280805.en}}. Accessed on 10 January 2023.</ref>

==Evolution==

=== Fossil history ===
[[File:Latzelia.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Latzelia]]'', a [[Carboniferous]] scutigeromorph from the [[Mazon Creek fossil beds]]. 1890 illustration by [[J. H. Emerton]] ]]

{{further|Centipedes of the Mazon Creek fossil beds}}

The [[fossil record]] of centipedes extends back to {{Ma|430}}, during the [[Late Silurian]] (''[[Crussolum]]''),<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shear |first=W. A. |year=1992 |title=Early life on land |journal=[[American Scientist]] |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=444–456|bibcode=1992AmSci..80..444G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeram |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Selden |first2=Paul A. |last3=Edwards |first3=Dianne |title=Land Animals in the Silurian: Arachnids and Myriapods from Shropshire, England |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2 November 1990 |volume=250 |issue=4981 |pages=658–661 |doi=10.1126/science.250.4981.658 |pmid=17810866 |bibcode=1990Sci...250..658J |url=https://horseshoecrab.org/research/sites/default/files/P.Shelden%201990.pdf}}</ref> though they are rare throughout the [[Paleozoic]].<ref name="Wilson 2003"/> The [[Devonian]] [[Panther Mountain Formation]] contains two species of centipede. One is a species of the scutigeromorph ''Crussolum''. The other is ''[[Devonobius]]'', which is included in the extinct group Devonobiomorpha.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Shear |first1=William A. |last2=Jeram |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Selden |first3=Paul |date=1998 |title=Centiped legs (Arthropoda, Chilopoda, Scutigeromorpha) from the Silurian and Devonian of Britain and the Devonian of North America |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2246/3370 |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=3231|hdl=2246/3370}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonamo |first1=P. M. |last2=Shear |first2=William A. |date=1988  |title=Devonobiomorpha, a new order of centipeds (Chilopoda) from the Middle Devonian of Gilboa, New York State, USA, and the phylogeny of centiped orders |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=2927 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/93435 |access-date= |via=Biodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> Another Devonian site, the [[Rhynie chert]], also bears ''Crussolum'' fossils,<ref name=":3" /> and possible scutigeromorph head material. ''[[Rhyniognatha]]'', which was once thought to be the oldest insect fossil, is also found in the Rhynie Chert.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haug |first1=Carolin |last2=Haug |first2=Joachim T. |date=2017-05-30 |title=The presumed oldest flying insect: more likely a myriapod? |journal=PeerJ |volume=5 |pages=e3402 |doi=10.7717/peerj.3402 |doi-access=free |pmid=28584727 |pmc=5452959 |issn=2167-8359}}</ref> Three species, one scutigeromorph (''[[Latzelia]]'') and two scolopendromorphs (''[[Mazoscolopendra]]'' and the poorly known ''[[Palenarthrus]]''), have been described from the [[Mazon Creek fossil beds]], which are [[Carboniferous]], 309–307 mya.<ref name="Shear">{{cite book |editor=Minelli, Alessandro |year=1990 |title=Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Myriapodology |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-08972-3 |last1=Shear |first1=William A. |last2=Bonamo |first2=Patricia M. |chapter=Fossil centipedes from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A. |pages=89–96 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJzFnCunVxsC&pg=PA89}}</ref> More species appear in the [[Mesozoic]], including scolopendromorphs and scutigeromorphs in the [[Cretaceous]].<ref name="Wilson 2003">{{cite journal |author=Wilson, Heather M. |year=2003 |title=A new scolopendromorph centipede (Myriapoda: Chilopoda) from the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) of Brazil |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1475-4983.00188|journal=[[Journal of Paleontology]] |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=73–77 |jstor=4094718 |doi=10.1666/0022-3360(2003)077<0073:ANSCMC>2.0.CO;2|s2cid=130297755 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Wilson 2001 pp. 489–495">{{cite journal | last=Wilson | first=Heather M. | title=First Mesozoic Scutigeromorph Centipede, from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil | journal=Palaeontology | publisher=Wiley | volume=44 | issue=3 | year=2001 | issn=0031-0239 | doi=10.1111/1475-4983.00188 | pages=489–495| bibcode=2001Palgy..44..489W | doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== External phylogeny ===

The following cladogram shows the position of the Chilopoda within the arthropods as of 2019:<ref name="Lozano-Fernandez Giacomelli Fleming Chen 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Lozano-Fernandez |first1=Jesus |last2=Giacomelli |first2=Mattia |last3=Fleming |first3=James F. |title=Pancrustacean Evolution Illuminated by Taxon-Rich Genomic-Scale Data Sets with an Expanded Remipede Sampling |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=8 |date=4 July 2019 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz097 |pages=2055–2070|pmid=31270537 |pmc=6684935 }}</ref><ref name="Giribet Edgecombe 2019 pp. R592–R602">{{cite journal |last1=Giribet |first1=Gonzalo |last2=Edgecombe |first2=Gregory D. |title=The Phylogeny and Evolutionary History of Arthropods |journal=Current Biology |volume=29 |issue=12 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.057 |pages=R592–R602|pmid=31211983 |s2cid=189926344 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019CBio...29.R592G }}</ref><!-- timings: <ref name="Misof Liu Meusemann Peters 2014 pp. 763–767">{{cite journal |last=Misof |first=Bernhard |last2=Liu |first2=Shanlin |last3=Meusemann |first3=Karen |title=Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution |journal=Science |volume=346 |issue=6210 |date=7 November 2014 |doi=10.1126/science.1257570 |pages=763–767}}</ref>-->

{{clade
|label1=[[Arthropoda]]
|1={{clade
   |label1=[[Chelicerata]] 
   |1=inc. [[Xiphosura|horseshoe crabs]] and [[spider]]s [[File:Limulus polyphemus (aquarium) (white background).jpg|70 px]] [[File:Aptostichus simus Monterey County.jpg|60 px]]
   |label2=[[Mandibulata]]
   |2={{clade
      |label1=[[Myriapoda]]
      |1={{clade
         |1='''Chilopoda''' [[File:Scolopendra japonica アオズムカデ 大阪府 生駒山産.jpg|70px]]
         |2=[[millipede]]s and allies <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Andrognathus corticarius A.jpg|100 px]]</span>
         }}
      |label2=[[Pancrustacea]] 
      |2=inc. [[crustacean]]s and [[insect]]s <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Lobster png by absurdwordpreferred d2xqhvd.png|70 px]]</span> [[File:Platycheirus angustatus (Syrphidae) - (male imago), Elst (Gld), the Netherlands - 2.jpg|60 px]]
      }}
   }}
}}

=== Internal phylogeny ===
Within the myriapods, centipedes are believed to be the first of the extant classes to branch from the [[Most recent common ancestor|last common ancestor]]. The five orders of centipedes are: [[Craterostigmomorpha]], [[Geophilomorpha]], [[Lithobiomorpha]], [[Scolopendromorpha]], and [[Scutigeromorpha]]. These orders are united into the [[clade]] Chilopoda by the following [[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]]:<ref name="phylogeny">{{cite book |last1=Edgecombe |first1=G. D. |last2=Giribet |first2=G. |editor1-last=Bousquets |editor1-first=J. Llorente |editor2-last=Morrone |editor2-first=J. J. |year=2002 |chapter=Myriapod phylogeny and the relationships of Chilopoda |pages=143–168 |title=Biodiversidad, Taxonomía y Biogeografia de Artrópodos de México: Hacia una Síntesis de su Conocimiento, Volumen III |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico|Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |chapter-url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/ggs/files/edgecombe_giribet_2002.pdf }}</ref>

# The first postcephalic appendage is modified to venom claws.
# The embryonic cuticle on second maxilliped has an [[egg tooth]].
# The trochanter–prefemur joint is fixed.
# A spiral ridge occurs on the nucleus of the spermatozoon.

The Chilopoda are then split into two clades: the Notostigmophora including the Scutigeromorpha and the Pleurostigmophora including the other four orders. The following physical and developmental traits can be used to separate members of the Pleurostigmomorpha from Notostigmomorpha:<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Svetnik |first=Ilja |date=2019 |title=Red List and DNA barcoding of Carinthian and Styrian centipedes (Chilopoda) |url=https://unipub.uni-graz.at/obvugrhs/5590248}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shelley |first=Rowland M. |date=March 1999 |title=Centipedes and Millipedes with Emphasis on North America Fauna |url=https://sites.google.com/g.emporia.edu/ksn/ksn-home/vol-45-no-3-centipedes-and-millipedes-with-emphasis-on-n-america-fauna |journal=Kansas School Naturalist |publisher=[[Emporia State University]] |volume=45 |issue=3 |issn=0022-877X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112025334/http://www.emporia.edu/ksn/v45n3-march1999/ |archive-date=12 Nov 2016}}</ref>
* The [[Spiracle (arthropods)|spiracles]] are located on the sides of the centipede (in Notostigmomorphs, they are located dorsally).
* The spiracles are deep, more complex, and always present in pairs.
* The head is somewhat flatter.
* The centipedes can develop through either [[Anamorphosis (biology)|anamorphosis]] or [[epimorphosis]].
It was previously believed that Chilopoda was split into Anamorpha (Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha) and Epimorpha (Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha), based on developmental modes, with the relationship of the Craterostigmomorpha being uncertain. Recent phylogenetic analyses using combined molecular and morphological characters supports the previous phylogeny. The Epimorpha still exist as a [[monophyletic]] group within the Pleurostigmophora, but the Anamorpha are [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]], as shown in the cladogram:<ref name="phylogeny"/>

{{clade
|grouplabel1={{clade labels|label1="Anamorpha"|top=20%}}
|label1='''Chilopoda'''
|1={{clade
   |label1=[[Notostigmophora]]
   |1=[[Scutigeromorpha]] [[File:Scutigera coleoptrata.JPG|100px]] |barbegin1=red
   |label2=[[Pleurostigmophora]]
   |2={{clade
      |1=[[Lithobiomorpha]] [[File:Lithobius forficatus (white background).jpg|100px]]|barend1=red
      |label2=[[Phylactometria]]
      |2={{clade
         |1=[[Craterostigmomorpha]] <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Craterostigmus crabilli 19391169 (cropped).jpg|75px]]</span>
         |label2=[[Epimorpha]]
         |2={{clade
            |1=[[Scolopendromorpha]] [[File:Scolopendra japonica アオズムカデ 大阪府 生駒山産.jpg|75px]]
            |2=[[Geophilomorpha]] [[File:Geophilus flavus (white background).jpg|75px]]
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

=== Evolution of venoms ===

All centipedes are [[venomous]]. Over the first 50 million years of the clade's evolutionary history, centipede venoms appear to have consisted of a simple cocktail of about four different components, and differentiation into specific venom types appears to have only occurred after the currently recognized five orders had developed. The evolution of the venom includes [[horizontal gene transfer]], involving bacteria, fungi and [[oomycete]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Undheim |first1=E. A. |last2=Jenner |first2=R. A. |year=2021 |title=Phylogenetic analyses suggest centipede venom arsenals were repeatedly stocked by horizontal gene transfer |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=818 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-21093-8 |pmid=33547293 |pmc=7864903 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12..818U}}</ref>

== Interaction with humans ==

=== As food ===
[[File:Centipedes as street food.jpg|thumb|Centipedes on sticks as [[street food]] at [[Wangfujing]] market]]

As a food item, certain large centipedes are consumed in [[China]], usually skewered and grilled or deep fried. They are often seen in street vendors’ stalls in large cities, including [[Donghuamen Night Market|Donghuamen]] and [[Wangfujing]] markets in [[Beijing]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Pak |first=Mijune |url=http://www.followmefoodie.com/2012/10/beijing-china-eating-bugs-spiders-centipedes-on-donghuamen-night-market/ |title=Eating Bugs/Insects in Donghuamen Night Market! |website=Follow me Foodie |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=22 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122012219/http://www.followmefoodie.com/2012/10/beijing-china-eating-bugs-spiders-centipedes-on-donghuamen-night-market/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://whenonearth.net/101-strangest-foods-around-world/ |title=101 Strangest Foods Around the World |access-date=2015-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116100414/http://whenonearth.net/101-strangest-foods-around-world/ |archive-date=2016-11-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Large centipedes are steeped in alcohol to make centipede vodka.<ref>{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Kieron |title=Centipede vodka and fried crickets: Is this the future of food? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/24/world/edible-insect-food-business/index.html |access-date=14 November 2022 |work=[[CNN]] |date=27 July 2015}}</ref>

=== Hazard ===
{{main|Centipede bite}}

Some species of centipedes can be hazardous to humans because of their bite. While a bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling, chills, [[fever]], and weakness, it is unlikely to be fatal. Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings. The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce [[Anaphylaxis|anaphylactic shock]] in such people. Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bush |first1=Sean P. |last2=King |first2=Bradley O. |last3=Norris |first3=Robert L. |last4=Stockwell  |first4=Scott A. |title=Centipede envenomation |year=2001 |journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=93–99 |pmid=11434497 |url=http://www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032%2801%2970700-4/abstract |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2001)012[0093:CE]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Even small centipedes that cannot pierce human skin are considered frightening by some people due to their dozens of legs moving at the same time and their tendency to dart swiftly out of the darkness towards one's feet.<ref name="Description">{{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Steven J. |title=House Centipede |date=19 October 2009 |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University]] |url=http://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/pdf/HouseCentipedes2.pdf |quote=In 1902, C.L. Marlatt, an entomologist with the United States Department of Agriculture writes in Circular #48 - <u>The House Centipede</u>: It may often be seen darting across floors with great speed, occasionally stopping suddenly and remaining absolutely motionless, presently to resume its rapid movements, often darting directly at residents, particularly women, evidently with a desire to conceal itself beneath their dresses, creating much consternation. |access-date=26 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009095749/http://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/pdf/HouseCentipedes2.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A 19th-century Tibetan poet warned his fellow [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], "if you enjoy frightening others, you will be reborn as a centipede."<ref>Zabs-Dkar Tshogs-Drug-Ran-Grol. ''The Life of Shabkar: The Autobiography of a Tibetan Yogin''. Albany: SUNY Press, 1994. p. 295.</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==

* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=J. G. E. |title=The Biology of Centipedes |year=2007 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-03411-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEp22u6tJgsC}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Chilopoda}}

{{div col|colwidth=26em}}
* [http://chilobase.biologia.unipd.it/ Chilobase, a web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106052057/http://chilobase.biologia.unipd.it/ |date=2017-11-06 }}.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824064342/http://www.atshq.org/articles/centipedes.html Debunking of some centipede myths] – American Tarantula Society
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190817202751/http://www.ento.csiro.au/biology/centipedes/centipedeKey.html Centipedes of Australia]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chilopoda&contgroup=Arthropoda Chilopoda]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416065704/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chilopoda&contgroup=Arthropoda |date=2009-04-16 }}. [[Tree of Life Web Project]].
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/language/centipede.shtml What do you call a centipede?]

{{div col end}}

{{Arthropods}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q43447}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Centipedes|Centipedes]]
[[Category:Extant Silurian first appearances]]
[[Category:Myriapods]]