Editing Cereal

{{Short description|Grass that has edible grain}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Unload wheat by the combine Claas Lexion 584.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Harvest]]ing a cereal with a [[combine harvester]] accompanied by a tractor and trailer.]]

[[File:Les Plantes Cultivades. Cereals. Imatge 119.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Cereal [[grain]]s: (top) [[pearl millet]], [[rice]], [[barley]]<br/>(middle) [[sorghum]], [[maize]], [[oat]]s<br/>(bottom) [[millet]], [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[triticale]] ]]

A '''cereal''' is a [[Poaceae|grass]] cultivated for its edible [[grain]]. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore [[staple food]]s. They include [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[millet]], and [[maize]]. Edible grains from other plant families, such as [[amaranth]], [[buckwheat]] and [[quinoa]], are [[pseudocereal]]s. Most cereals are [[annual plant|annuals]], producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a [[perennial]]. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]].

Cereals were [[domesticated]] in the [[Neolithic]] around 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in the [[Fertile Crescent]]; rice and some millets were domesticated in East Asia, while [[sorghum]] and other millets were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticated by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the [[Green Revolution]]. This increase in production has accompanied a [[Grain trade|growing international trade]], with some countries producing large portions of the cereal supply for other countries.

Cereals provide food eaten directly as [[whole grain]]s, usually cooked, or they are ground to [[flour]] and made into [[bread]], [[porridge]], and other products. Cereals have a high [[starch]] content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as [[beer]]. Cereal farming has a substantial [[Environmental impact of agriculture|environmental impact]], and is often produced in high-intensity [[monoculture]]s. The environmental harms can be mitigated by [[Sustainable agriculture|sustainable practices]] which reduce the impact on soil and improve biodiversity, such as [[no-till farming]] and [[intercropping]].

== History ==

=== Origins ===

{{Further|Neolithic Revolution|Domestication}}

[[File:Trilla del trigo en el Antiguo Egipto.jpg|thumb|Threshing of grain in [[ancient Egypt]] ]]

Wheat, barley, [[rye]], and [[oats]] were gathered and eaten in the [[Fertile Crescent]] during the early [[Neolithic]]. Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the [[Ohalo II]] site in [[Israel]], with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Renfrew |first1=Colin |title=Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice |last2=Bahn |first2=Paul |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-500-28976-1 |edition=6th |page=277}}</ref>

During the same period, farmers in [[China]] began to [[History of rice cultivation|farm rice]] and millet, using human-made floods and [[Slash-and-burn|fires]] as part of their cultivation regimen.<ref name="NatGeo">{{cite magazine |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |title=The Development of Agriculture |magazine=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=22 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414142437/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/development-of-agriculture/ |archive-date=14 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Plant evolution and the origin of crop species |page=119 |last=Hancock |first=James F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_O9ZnFRNngC&pg=PA119 |publisher=CABI |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-84593-801-7 |edition=3rd |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=4 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504223635/https://books.google.com/books?id=j_O9ZnFRNngC&pg=PA119 |url-status=live}}</ref> The use of [[soil conditioner]]s, including [[manure]], fish, [[compost]] and [[wood ash|ashes]], appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of the world including [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Nile Valley]], and Eastern Asia.<ref name="FertMan">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPkoOU4BvEsC&pg=PA44 |page=46 |author=UN Industrial Development Organization, [[International Fertilizer Development Center]] |title=The Fertilizer Manual |publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]] |year=1998 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-7923-5032-3 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=4 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504221511/https://books.google.com/books?id=qPkoOU4BvEsC&pg=PA44 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Neolithic founder crops|Cereals that became]] modern barley and wheat were [[domesticated]] some 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent.<ref name="Purugganan Fuller 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Purugganan |first1=Michael D. |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q. |title=The nature of selection during plant domestication |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7231 |date=February 1, 2009 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature07895 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dorian-Fuller/publication/24003450_Purugganan_MD_Fuller_DQ_The_nature_of_selection_during_plant_domestication_Nature_457_843-848/links/0912f508156a26ca22000000/Purugganan-MD-Fuller-DQ-The-nature-of-selection-during-plant-domestication-Nature-457-843-848.pdf<!--NOT redundant to DOI--> |pages=843–848 |pmid=19212403 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P |s2cid=205216444 }}</ref> Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while [[sorghum]] and other millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Henry |first1=R.J. |last2=Kettlewell |first2=P.S. |title=Cereal Grain Quality |publisher=[[Chapman & Hall]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-9-4009-1513-8 |page=155}}</ref> [[Maize]] arose from a single domestication in [[Mesoamerica]] about 9,000 years ago.<ref name="Mat">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=Y. |year=2002 |title=A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=99 |pages=6080–4 |doi=10.1073/pnas.052125199 |pmid=11983901 |last2=Vigouroux |first2=Y. |last3=Goodman |first3=M. M. |last4=Sanchez G. |first4=J. |last5=Buckler |first5=E. |last6=Doebley |first6=J. |issue=9 |pmc=122905 |display-authors=3 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.6080M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Roman harvester, Trier.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Roman harvesting machine]]

In these agricultural regions, religion was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests. In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess [[Ashnan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Standage |first=Tom |year=2009 |title=An Edible History of Humanity |location=New York |publisher=Walker & Company |pages=27–28 |isbn=978-1782391654}} [http://mrrangel.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/2/2/14228848/edible_history.pdf (pdf)]</ref> The Roman goddess [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood;<ref name="Room 1990">{{cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |title=Who's Who in Classical Mythology |pages=89–90 |publisher=NTC Publishing |year=1990 |isbn=0-8442-5469-X}}</ref> the term cereal is derived from Latin ''cerealis'', "of grain", originally meaning "of [the goddess] Ceres".<ref>{{cite web |title=cereal (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/cereal |website=Etymonline |access-date=5 February 2024}}</ref> Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war: the Hittite [[Sun goddess of Arinna]], the Canaanite [[Lahmu]] and the Roman [[Janus]].<ref name="jhom-bread">{{cite web |title=JHOM - Bread - Hebrew |url=https://www.jhom.com/topics/bread/hebrew.html |website=www.jhom.com |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026063247/https://www.jhom.com/topics/bread/hebrew.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Complex [[civilization]]s arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus, allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities.<ref name="Mayshar Moav Pascali 2022">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/718372#:~:text=The%20conventional%20theory%20about%20the,elites%20and%2C%20eventually%2C%20states.|doi=10.1086/718372 |title=The Origin of the State: Land Productivity or Appropriability? |year=2022 |last1=Mayshar |first1=Joram |last2=Moav |first2=Omer |last3=Pascali |first3=Luigi |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=130 |issue=4 |pages=1091–1144 |hdl=10230/57736 |s2cid=244818703 |access-date=17 April 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417220207/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/718372#:~:text=The%20conventional%20theory%20about%20the,elites%20and%2C%20eventually%2C%20states|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Modern ===

{{further|Green Revolution}}

[[File:Punjab Monsoon (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Paddy field|Rice fields]] in India. [[Green Revolution in India|India's participation in the Green Revolution]] helped resolve [[food security|food shortages]] in the mid-twentieth century.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Manoj |last2=Williams |first2=Matthias |title=Punjab, bread basket of India, hungers for change |date=29 January 2009 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-election-punjab-idUSTRE80T00U20120130 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2004, Punjab |author=The Government of Punjab |date=2004 |author-link=Government of Punjab, India |access-date=9 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708073911/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011 |url-status=live}} Section: "The Green Revolution", pp. 17–20.</ref>]]

During the second half of the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to the [[Green Revolution]], a technological change funded by development organizations.<ref name="FAOGreenRevolution">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w2612e/w2612e06a.htm |title=Lessons from the green revolution: towards a new green revolution |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=5 June 2017 |quote=The green revolution was a technology package comprising material components of improved high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of two staple cereals (rice or "wheat"), irrigation or controlled "water" supply and improved moisture utilization, fertilizers and pesticides and associated management skills. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518074944/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w2612e/w2612e06a.htm |archive-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> The strategies developed by the Green Revolution included mechanized tilling, [[monoculture]], nitrogen fertilizers, and breeding of new strains of seeds. These innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality.<ref name="Sands Morris Dratz Pilgeram 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Sands |first1=David C. |last2=Morris |first2=Cindy E. |last3=Dratz |first3=Edward A. |last4=Pilgeram |first4=Alice L. |title=Elevating optimal human nutrition to a central goal of plant breeding and production of plant-based foods |journal=Plant Science |volume=177 |issue=5 |date=2009 |pmid=20467463 |pmc=2866137 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.07.011 |pages=377–389|bibcode=2009PlnSc.177..377S }}</ref> These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have [[Protein quality|low-quality proteins]], with [[essential amino acid]] deficiencies, are high in [[carbohydrate]]s, and lack balanced [[essential fatty acid]]s, [[vitamin]]s, [[Mineral (nutrient)|minerals]] and other quality factors.<ref name="Sands Morris Dratz Pilgeram 2009"/> So-called [[ancient grains]] and [[Heirloom plant|heirloom varieties]] have seen an increase in popularity with the [[Organic movement|"organic" movements]] of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as [[Crop|food crops]] are replaced with [[cash crop]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/did-quinoa-get-too-popular-for-its-own-good.htm |title=Did Quinoa Get Too Popular for Its Own Good? |date=5 November 2018 |website=[[HowStuffWorks]] |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421022945/https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/did-quinoa-get-too-popular-for-its-own-good.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Biology ==

[[File:Triticum aestivum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-274.jpg|thumb|Structure of a cereal, [[wheat]]. A: Plant; B ripe ear of grains; 1 [[spikelet]] before flowering; 2 the same, flowering and spread, enlarged; 3 flowers with [[glume]]s; 4 [[stamen]]s 5 [[pollen]]; 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales; 8 and 9 parts of the scar; 10 fruit husks; 11–14 grains, natural size and enlarged.]]

Cereals are grasses, in the [[Poaceae]] family, that produce edible [[grain]]s. A cereal grain is botanically a [[caryopsis]], a [[fruit]] where the [[seed coat]] is fused with the [[pericarp]].<ref name="Juliano Tuaño 2019">{{cite book |last1=Juliano |first1=Bienvenido O. |last2=Tuaño |first2=Arvin Paul P. |title=Rice |chapter=Gross structure and composition of the rice grain |publisher=Elsevier |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-12-811508-4 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-811508-4.00002-2 |pages=31–53}}</ref>{{sfn|Rosentrater|Evers|2018|p=5}} Grasses have [[Plant stem|stems]] that are hollow except at the [[Nodes (botany)|nodes]] and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks.<ref name="Clayton">{{cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=W.D. |title=Genera Graminum: Grasses of the world |last2=Renvoise |first2=S.A. |date=1986 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |isbn=978-1900347754 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals.<ref name="Clayton"/><ref name="BSBI13">{{cite book |last1=Cope |first1=T. |title=Grasses of the British Isles |last2=Gray |first2=A. |date=2009 |publisher=[[Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland]] |isbn=978-0901158420 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> The flowers are usually [[hermaphroditic]], with the exception of [[maize]], and mainly [[Anemophily|anemophilous]] or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role.<ref name="Clayton"/><ref>{{Cite journal |year=1964 |title=Insect Pollination of Grasses |journal=[[Australian Journal of Entomology]] |volume=3 |pages=74 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-6055.1964.tb00625.x |doi-access=}}</ref>

Among the best-known cereals are maize, [[rice]], wheat, barley, [[sorghum]], [[millet]], oat, rye and [[triticale]].{{sfn|Rosentrater|Evers|2018|pp=2–3}} Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these [[pseudocereal]]s include [[buckwheat]], [[quinoa]], and [[amaranth]].{{sfn|Rosentrater|Evers|2018|pp=68–69}}

== Cultivation ==

All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are [[annual plant|annual]], so after sowing they are harvested just once.<ref name="Barr-2019"/> An exception is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a [[perennial]], producing a [[ratoon]] crop.<ref name="IRRI rice plant">{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |title=The Rice Plant and How it Grows |website=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106224427/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |archive-date=January 6, 2009}}</ref> Cereals adapted to a [[temperate climate]], such as [[barley]], [[oat]]s, [[rye]], [[spelt]], [[triticale]], and [[wheat]], are called cool-season cereals. Those preferring a [[tropical climate]], such as [[millet]] and [[sorghum]], are called warm-season cereals.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>{{sfn|Rosentrater|Evers|2018|pp=3–4}}<ref name="Best for grazing">{{cite web |date=22 February 2018 |title=Best Crops for Grazing |url=https://www.agriculture.com/livestock/cattle/best-crops-for-grazing |access-date=18 June 2020 |website=[[Successful Farming]] |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126032757/https://www.agriculture.com/livestock/cattle/best-crops-for-grazing |url-status=live}}</ref> Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around {{convert|30 |°C|F|round=5|disp=or}}. Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost.<ref name="Barr-2019">{{Cite book |last1=Barr |first1=Skylar |last2=Sutton |first2=Mason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IePEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |title=Technology of Cereals, Pulses and Oilseeds |publisher=Edtech |year=2019 |isbn=9781839472619 |pages=54 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830133456/https://books.google.com/books?id=IePEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>

=== Planting ===

[[File:Green rice sheaves planted in a paddy field with long shadows at golden hour in Don Det Laos.jpg|thumb|left|Newly planted [[rice]] in a [[paddy field]] ]]

In the tropics, warm-season cereals can be grown at any time of the year. In temperate zones, these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost. Most cereals are planted in [[Tillage|tilled soils]], which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field. Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle.  Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields,<ref name="IRRI water mgmt">{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/water-management |title=Water Management |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |access-date=November 4, 2023 }}</ref> though some strains are grown on dry land.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Phool Chand |last2=O'Toole |first2=J. C. O'Toole |year=1986 |title=Upland Rice: A Global Perspective |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |isbn=978-971-10-4172-4}}</ref> Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Danovich |first=Tove |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/dec/15/sorghum-wonder-grain-american-food-quinoa |title=Move over, quinoa: sorghum is the new 'wonder grain' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 December 2015 |access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref>

Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones. These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer. Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest. They flower only in spring as they require [[vernalization]], exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically. Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>{{Clear}}

=== Growth ===

[[File:Wheat scab.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|''[[Fusarium graminearum]]'' damages many cereals, here [[wheat]], where it causes wheat scab (right).]]

Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions. The greatest constraints on [[crop yield|yield]] are [[Lists of cereal pests and diseases|plant diseases]], especially [[Rust (fungus)|rusts]] (mostly the ''[[Puccinia]]'' spp.) and [[powdery mildew]]s.<ref name = "Marienlyst" >{{Cite web |year=2015 |pages=1–163 |publisher=[[Aarhus University]] |title=14th International Cereal Rusts and Powdery Mildews Conference |url=https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG3/node/176}}</ref> Fusarium head blight, caused by ''[[Fusarium graminearum]]'', is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals.<ref name="Disaster">{{cite journal |year=2004 |issue=6 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |volume=5 |last1=Goswami |first1=R. |last2=Kistler |first2=H. |pages=515–525 |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |issn=1464-6722 |s2cid=11548015 |pmid=20565626 |title=Heading for disaster: ''Fusarium graminearum'' on cereal crops |doi=10.1111/j.1364-3703.2004.00252.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other pressures include [[Lists of cereal pests and diseases|pest insects]] and wildlife like rodents and deer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singleton |first1=Grant R |last2=Lorica |first2=Renee P |last3=Htwe |first3=Nyo Me |last4=Stuart |first4=Alexander M |date=2021-10-01 |title=Rodent management and cereal production in Asia: Balancing food security and conservation |journal=Pest Management Science |volume=77 |issue=10 |pages=4249–4261 |doi=10.1002/ps.6462 |pmid=33949075 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Deer (Overview) Interaction with Humans - Damage to Agriculture {{!}} Wildlife Online |url=https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/animals/article/deer-overview-interaction-with-humans-damage-to-agriculture |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.wildlifeonline.me.uk |language=en}}</ref> In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply [[fungicide]]s or pesticides

=== Harvesting ===

Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by [[combine harvester]], a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then [[Threshing|threshes]] and [[Winnowing|winnows]] the grain.<ref name="Barr-2019"/><ref>{{cite book |title=A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization |last1=Constable |first1=George |last2=Somerville |first2=Bob |year=2003 |publisher=[[Joseph Henry Press]] |location=[[Washington, DC]] |isbn=0-309-08908-5 |url=http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2955 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521092207/http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2955 |url-status=live }}</ref> In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the [[Global North and Global South|Global South]], harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as [[scythe]]s and [[grain cradle]]s.<ref name="Barr-2019"/> Leftover parts of the plant can be allowed to decompose, or collected as [[straw]]; this can be used for animal bedding, mulch, and a growing medium for mushrooms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cereal Straw |url=https://www.uky.edu/ccd/production/crop-resources/gffof/cereal-straw |publisher=University of Kentucky |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329052608/https://www.uky.edu/ccd/production/crop-resources/gffof/cereal-straw |archive-date=29 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is used in crafts such as building with [[cob (material)|cob]] or [[straw-bale construction]].<ref name="Walker Thomson Maskell 2020">{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Pete |last2=Thomson |first2=A. |last3=Maskell |first3=D. |title=Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials |chapter=Straw bale construction |publisher=Elsevier |year=2020 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102704-2.00009-3 |pages=189–216|isbn=978-0-08-102704-2 }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=155>
File:Rice-combine-harvester, Katori-city, Japan.jpg|A small-scale rice [[combine harvester]] in Japan
</gallery>

=== Preprocessing and storage ===

If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by [[mould]] fungi such as ''[[Aspergillus]]'' and ''[[Penicillium]]''.<ref name="Barr-2019"/><ref name="Wiley 2016 pp. 364–375">{{cite book |chapter=Spoilage of Cereals and Cereal Products |editor1=Erkmen, Osman |editor2=Bozoglu, T. Faruk |title=Food Microbiology: Principles into Practice |publisher=Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-119-23776-1 |doi=10.1002/9781119237860.ch21 |pages=364–375}}</ref> This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in a [[grain elevator]] or [[silo]], to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and [[rodent]]s.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>

<gallery mode=packed heights=155>
File:Woman from small village peeling corn - Zambia.jpg|Peeling [[maize]] in [[Zambia]] 
File:Grain elevators on a farm in Israel (cropped).jpg|[[Grain elevator]]s on a farm in Israel
</gallery>

=== Processing ===

[[File:Mexican woman maize tortillas.jpg|thumb|An indigenous Mexican woman prepares maize [[tortilla]]s, 2013]]

When the cereal is ready to be distributed, it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent [[Gristmill|milling for flour]] or other processing steps, to produce foods such as flour, [[oatmeal]], or [[pearl barley]].<ref name="Papageorgiou Skendi 2018">{{cite book |last1=Papageorgiou |first1=Maria |last2=Skendi |first2=Adriana |chapter=1 Introduction to cereal processing and by-products |year=2018 |title=Sustainable Recovery and Reutilization of Cereal Processing By-Products |pages=1–25 |editor-last=Galanakis |editor-first=Charis M. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081021620000010 |access-date=9 February 2024 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-102162-0}}</ref> In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with [[Tortilla|tortilla production]] in Central America.<ref name="Astier Odenthal Patricio Orozco-Ramírez 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Astier |first1=Marta |last2=Odenthal |first2=Georg |last3=Patricio |first3=Carmen |last4=Orozco-Ramírez |first4=Quetzalcoatl |title=Handmade tortilla production in the basins of lakes Pátzcuaro and Zirahuén, Mexico |journal=Journal of Maps |publisher=Informa UK |volume=15 |issue=1 |date=2019-01-02 |issn=1744-5647 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2019.1576553 |pages=52–57|bibcode=2019JMaps..15...52A |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways. [[Rice#Processing|Rice processing]], for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour. Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2018 |title=Varieties |url=http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Rice Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802162740/http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |archive-date=2 August 2018 }}</ref> Some grains can be [[Malting|malted]], a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Malting Process |url=https://www.brewingwithbriess.com/malting-101/malting-process/ |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Brewing With Briess}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malting - an overview |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/malting |access-date=2024-02-09 |website=Science Direct}}</ref> These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making [[Ethanol|industrial alcohol]],<ref name="Jacobs 1938"/> [[beer]],<ref name="Barth 2014"/> [[whisky]],<ref name="cfr5.22">{{Cite web |title=Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations, Pt. 5.22 |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/aprqtr/pdf/27cfr5.22.pdf |access-date=17 October 2008 |quote=Bourbon whiskey ... Corn whiskey ... Malt whiskey ... Rye whiskey ... Wheat whiskey}}</ref> or [[rice wine]],<ref name="Borrell 2009"/> or sold [[barley malt syrup|directly as a sugar]].<ref name="Briggs 1978 pp. 560–586">{{cite book |last=Briggs |first=D. E. |title=Barley |chapter=Some uses of barley malt |publisher=Springer Netherlands |publication-place=Dordrecht |year=1978 |isbn=978-94-009-5717-6 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-5715-2_16 |pages=560–586 |quote=products include malt extracts (powders and syrups), diastase, beer, whisky, ... and malt vinegar.}}</ref> In the 20th century, [[Food processing|industrial processes]] developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes. In particular, [[maize]] can be altered to produce food additives, such as [[corn starch]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/tm18www-corn.htm |title=International Starch: Production of corn starch |publisher=Starch.dk |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515104234/http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/tm18www-corn.htm |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}</ref> and [[high-fructose corn syrup]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Glucose-fructose syrup: How is it produced? |url=http://www.eufic.org/en/food-production/article/glucose-fructose-how-is-it-produced-infographic | publisher=European Food Information Council (EUFIC) |access-date=9 February 2024 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517230154/http://www.eufic.org/en/food-production/article/glucose-fructose-how-is-it-produced-infographic |archive-date=17 May 2017}}</ref>

== Effects on the environment ==

=== Impacts ===

{{further|Environmental impact of agriculture}}

[[File:Harvesting Cycle 2 Thinopyrum intermedium.jpg|thumb|Harvesting [[kernza]], a [[perennial]] cereal developed in the 21st century. Because it grows back every year, farmers no longer have to till the soil.]]

Cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment. [[Tillage]] can lead to [[soil erosion]] and increased runoff.<ref name="Takken Govers Jetten 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Takken |first1=Ingrid |last2=Govers |first2=Gerard |last3=Jetten |first3=Victor |last4=Nachtergaele |first4=Jeroen |last5=Steegen |first5=An |last6=Poesen |first6=Jean |title=Effects of tillage on runoff and erosion patterns |journal=Soil and Tillage Research |publisher=Elsevier |volume=61 |issue=1–2 |year=2001 |issn=0167-1987 |doi=10.1016/s0167-1987(01)00178-7 |pages=55–60|bibcode=2001STilR..61...55T |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/e336843d-68b1-461a-a8de-613b9b79321e }}</ref> Irrigation consumes large quantities of water; its extraction from lakes, rivers, or [[aquifer]]s may have [[Environmental effects of irrigation|multiple environmental effects]], such as lowering the [[water table]] and cause salination of aquifers.<ref name="Sundquist 2007">{{cite book |last=Sundquist  |first=Bruce |year=2007 |chapter=1 Irrigation overview |title=The Earth's Carrying Capacity: some literature reviews |chapter-url=http://home.windstream.net/bsundquist1/ir1.html |access-date=8 February 2024 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217192619/http://home.windstream.net/bsundquist1/ir1.html |archive-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> [[Fertilizer]] production contributes to [[global warming]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems |last1=Mbow |first1=C. |last2=Rosenzweig |first2=C. |last3=Barioni |first3=L. G. |last4=Benton |first4=T. |last5=Herrero |first5=M. |last6=Krishnapillai |first6=M. V. |year=2019 |page=454 |chapter=Chapter 5: Food Security |display-authors=4 |chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf}}</ref> and its use can lead to pollution and [[eutrophication]] of waterways.<ref name="Werner 2002">{{cite book |last=Werner |first=Wilfried |title=Fertilizers |chapter=6. Environmental Aspects |publisher=Wiley |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 |doi=10.1002/14356007.n10_n05}}</ref> Arable farming uses large amounts of [[fossil fuel]], [[Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture|releasing greenhouse gases]] which contribute to global warming.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nabuurs |first1=G-J. |last2=Mrabet |first2=R. |last3=Abu Hatab |first3=A. |last4=Bustamante |first4=M. |display-authors=etal |chapter-url=https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter07.pdf |chapter=7: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |doi=10.1017/9781009157926.009 |page=750}}</ref> Pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife, such as [[Pesticide toxicity to bees|to bees]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2018 |title=Neonicotinoids: risks to bees confirmed |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/180228 |access-date=23 June 2023 |publisher=[[European Food Safety Authority]]}}</ref>

=== Mitigations ===

{{further|Sustainable agriculture}}

[[File:Great Soil Structure in Stehly Crop Field in Eastern, SD (21480483232).jpg|thumb|Excellent soil structure in land in [[South Dakota]] with [[no-till farming]] using a [[crop rotation]] of maize, soybeans, and wheat accompanied by [[cover crop]]s. The main crop has been harvested but the roots of the cover crop are still visible in autumn.]]

Some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices. Tillage can be reduced by [[no-till farming]], such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds, or by developing and planting [[perennial crop]] varieties so that annual tilling is not required. Rice can be grown as a [[Ratooning|ratoon]] crop;<ref name="IRRI rice plant"/> and other researchers are exploring perennial cool-season cereals, such as [[kernza]], being developed in the US.<ref name="Kaplan 2021">{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=A recipe for fighting climate change and feeding the world |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/interactive/2021/bread-baking-sustainable-grain-kernza/ |access-date=19 November 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

Fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some [[polyculture]]s, growing several crops in a single field at the same time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glover |first1=Jerry D. |last2=Cox |first2=Cindy M. |last3=Reganold |first3=John P. |year=2007 |title=Future Farming: A Return to Roots? |url=http://www.landinstitute.org/pages/Glover-et-al-2007-Sci-Am.pdf |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=297 |issue=2 |pages=82–89 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0807-82 |pmid=17894176 |bibcode=2007SciAm.297b..82G }}</ref> Fossil fuel-based [[nitrogen fertilizer]] usage can be reduced by [[intercropping]] cereals with [[legume]]s which [[nitrogen fixation|fix nitrogen]].<ref name="Jensen Carlsson Hauggaard-Nielsen 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Erik Steen |last2=Carlsson |first2=Georg |last3=Hauggaard-Nielsen |first3=Henrik |title=Intercropping of grain legumes and cereals improves the use of soil N resources and reduces the requirement for synthetic fertilizer N: A global-scale analysis |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |volume=40 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5 |issn=1774-0746 |doi=10.1007/s13593-020-0607-x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020AgSD...40....5J }}</ref> Greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like [[contour trenching]] that reduce the need for irrigation, and by breeding new crop varieties.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vermeulen |first1=S.J. |last2=Dinesh |first2=D. |year=2016 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/71052 |title=Measures for climate change adaptation in agriculture. Opportunities for climate action in agricultural systems. CCAFS Info Note |location=Copenhagen, Denmark |publisher=CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== Direct consumption ===

Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain [[cooked rice]], raw [[white rice|milled rice]] is washed and boiled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to cook perfect rice |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=[[BBC Food]] |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827052428/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |url-status=live }}</ref> Foods such as [[porridge]]{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=642–643 Porridge}} and [[muesli]] may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, whereas commercial [[breakfast cereal]]s such as [[granola]] may be highly processed and combined with sugars, [[Vegetable oil|oils]], and other products.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/cooking-tips/article/muesli-vs-granola |title=What's the difference between muesli and granola? A very important primer |first=Rochelle |last=Bilow |date=17 September 2015 |work=Bon Appétit |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |access-date=6 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Flour-based foods ===

{{main|Flour}}

[[File:Various grains.jpg|thumb|Various cereals and their products]]

Cereals can be [[Mill (grinding)|ground]] to make flour. [[Wheat flour]] is the main ingredient of [[bread]] and [[pasta]].<ref name="Vaclavik Christian 2008">{{cite book |last1=Vaclavik |first1=Vickie A. |last2=Christian |first2=Elizabeth W. |title=Essentials of Food Science |chapter=Grains: Cereal, Flour, Rice, and Pasta |publisher=Springer New York |publication-place=New York |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-387-69939-4 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-69940-0_6 |pages=81–105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The history of flour - The FlourWorld Museum Wittenburg – Flour Sacks of the World |url=https://flour-art-museum.de/english/background-and-culture/history-of-flour.php |access-date=30 August 2022 |website=flour-art-museum.de |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227214328/https://flour-art-museum.de/english/background-and-culture/history-of-flour.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="FAO Wheat for bread">{{cite web |last1=Peña |first1=R. J. |title=Wheat for bread and other foods |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4011e/y4011e0w.htm |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=30 August 2022 |quote=Wheat, in the form of bread, provides more nutrients to the world population than any other single food source. |archive-date=27 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127205040/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4011e/y4011e0w.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Maize flour has been important in [[Mesoamerica]] since ancient times, with foods such as Mexican [[tortilla]]s and [[tamale]]s.{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=516–517 Mexico}} Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe,<ref name="Medieval Rye">{{cite web |title=Medieval Daily Bread Made of Rye |url=https://www.medieval.eu/medieval-daily-bread-made-rye/ |website=Medieval Histories |access-date=8 February 2024 |date=15 January 2017 |quote=Sources: Råg. Article in ''Kulturhistorisk leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder''. Rosenkilde and Bagger 1982.}}</ref> while [[rice flour]] is common in Asia.{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=682 Rice}}

A cereal grain consists of starchy [[endosperm]], [[Cereal germ|germ]], and [[bran]]. Wholemeal flour contains all of these; white flour is without some or all of the germ or bran.<ref name="Better Health"/>{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=315–316 Flour}}

=== Alcohol ===

{{further|Beer|Ethanol fermentation}}

Because cereals have a high starch content, they are often used to make [[industrial alcohol]]<ref name="Jacobs 1938">{{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Paul Burke |title=Information on Industrial Alcohol |date=1938 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9xGAQAAIAAJ |access-date=29 August 2022 |language=en |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830133456/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Information_on_Industrial_Alcohol/I9xGAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[alcoholic drink]]s by [[Fermentation in food processing|fermentation]]. For instance, [[beer]] is produced by [[brewing]] and fermenting [[starch]], mainly from cereal grains—most commonly [[malt]]ed barley.<ref name="Barth 2014">{{cite book |last=Barth |first=Roger |chapter=1. Overview |title=The Chemistry of Beer: The Science in the Suds |publisher=Wiley |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-118-67497-0}}</ref> [[Rice wine]]s such as Japanese [[sake]] are brewed in Asia;{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=701}} a fermented rice and honey wine was made in China some 9,000 years ago.<ref name="Borrell 2009">{{cite web |last1=Borrell |first1=Brendan |title=The Origin of Wine |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origin-of-wine/ |publisher=[[Scientific American]] |date=20 August 2009}}</ref>

=== Animal feed ===

{{further|Animal feed}}

[[File:Chickens feeding.jpg|thumb|Chickens eating cereal-rich [[animal feed|feed]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Cereals in poultry diets – Small and backyard poultry |url=https://poultry.extension.org/articles/feeds-and-feeding-of-poultry/feed-ingredients-for-poultry/cereals-in-poultry-diets/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=poultry.extension.org}}</ref>]]

Cereals and their related byproducts such as [[hay]] are routinely [[animal husbandry|fed to farm animals]]. Common cereals as animal food include maize, barley, wheat, and oats. Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into [[silage]]; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Feeding cereal grains to livestock: moist vs dry grain |url=https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/feeding-cereal-grains-to-livestock-moist-vs-dry-grain |publisher=Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board |access-date=5 February 2024}}</ref> Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets.<ref name="Thomas van Vliet van der Poel 1998">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=M. |last2=van Vliet |first2=T. |last3=van der Poel |first3=A.F.B. |title=Physical quality of pelleted animal feed 3. Contribution of feedstuff components |journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology |volume=70 |issue=1–2 |date=1998 |doi=10.1016/S0377-8401(97)00072-2 |pages=59–78}}</ref>

== Nutrition ==

=== Whole-grain and processed ===

[[File:Home made whole grain bread.jpg|thumb|Whole grains as used in this bread have more of the original seed, making them more nutritious but more prone to spoilage in storage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storing Whole Grains |url=https://wholegrainscouncil.org/recipes/cooking-whole-grains/storing-whole-grains |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Whole Grains Council}}</ref>]]

As [[whole grain]]s, cereals provide [[carbohydrate]]s, [[polyunsaturated fat]]s, [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], [[vitamin]]s, and [[Mineral (nutrient)|minerals]]. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ, all that remains is the starchy endosperm.<ref name="Better Health">{{cite web |date=6 December 2023 |title=Cereals and wholegrain foods |url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/cereals-and-wholegrain-foods |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=Better Health Channel |quote=in consultation with and approved by Victoria State Government Department of Health; Deakin University}}</ref> In some [[Developing country|developing countries]], cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance. In [[Developed country|developed countries]], cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial, primarily in the form of refined and processed grains.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mundell |first=E.J. |date=9 July 2019 |title=More Americans Are Eating Whole Grains, But Intake Still Too Low |url=https://consumer.healthday.com/vitamins-and-nutrition-information-27/food-and-nutrition-news-316/more-americans-are-eating-whole-grains-but-intake-still-too-low-748156.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102033043/https://consumer.healthday.com/vitamins-and-nutrition-information-27/food-and-nutrition-news-316/more-americans-are-eating-whole-grains-but-intake-still-too-low-748156.html |archive-date=2 November 2021 |access-date=31 May 2021 |work=[[HealthDay]]}}</ref>

=== Amino acid balance ===

{{further|Complete protein|Protein combining}}

Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid [[lysine]], obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with [[legume]]s to obtain a balanced diet. Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid [[methionine]], which grains contain. Thus, [[protein combining|a combination]] of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians. Such combinations include [[dal]] (lentils) with rice by [[South India]]ns and [[Bengali people|Bengalis]], [[beans]] with [[Corn tortilla|maize tortillas]], [[tofu]] with rice, and [[peanut butter]] with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including the Americas.<ref name="vogel301">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/primemovernatura0000voge |title=Prime Mover: A Natural History of Muscle |date=17 August 2003 |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=9780393247312 |page=[https://archive.org/details/primemovernatura0000voge/page/301 301] |url-access=registration}}.</ref> For [[fodder|feeding animals]], the amount of [[crude protein]] measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=J.S. |last2=Bartley |first2=E.E. |last3=Dayton |first3=A.D. |year=1980 |title=Effects of Dietary Protein Concentration on Lactating Cows |journal=[[Journal of Dairy Science]] |volume=63 |issue=2 |page=243 |doi=10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(80)82920-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Comparison of major cereals ===

{| class="wikitable" 
|+ Nutritional values for some major cereals<ref>{{cite web |title=FoodData Central |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ |publisher=[[US Department of Agriculture]] |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Per 45g serving
![[Barley]]
![[Maize]]
![[Millet]]
![[Oat]]s
![[Rice]]
![[Rye]]
![[Sorghum|Sorgh.]]
![[Wheat]]
|-
|Energy
|kcal
|159
|163
|170
|175
|165
|152
|148
|153
|-
|[[Protein (nutrient)|Protein]]
|g
|5.6
|3.6
|5.0
|7.6
|3.4
|4.6
|4.8
|6.1
|-
|[[Lipid]]
|g
|1
|1.6
|1.9
|3.1
|1.4
|0.7
|1.6
|1.1
|-
|[[Carbohydrate]]
|g
|33
|35
|31
|30
|31
|34
|32
|32
|-
|[[Dietary fiber|Fibre]]
|g
|7.8
|3.3
|3.8
|4.8
|1.6
|6.8
|3.0
|4.8
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Calcium]]
|mg
|15
|3
|4
|24
|4
|11
|6
|15
|-
|[[Iron]]
|mg
|1.6
|1.5
|1.3
|2.1
|0.6
|1.2
|1.5
|1.6
|-
|[[Magnesium]]
|mg
|60
|57
|51
|80
|52
|50
|74
|65
|-
|[[Phosphorus]]
|mg
|119
|108
|128
|235
|140
|149
|130
|229
|-
|[[Potassium]]
|mg
|203
|129
|88
|193
|112
|230
|163
|194
|-
|[[Sodium]]
|mg
|5
|16
|2
|1
|2
|1
|1
|1
|-
|[[Zinc]]
|mg
|1.2
|0.8
|0.8
|1.8
|1.0
|1.2
|0.7
|1.9
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Thiamine|Thiamine (B1)]]
|mg
|0.29
|0.17
|0.19
|0.34
|0.24
|0.14
|0.15
|0.19
|-
|[[Riboflavin|Riboflavin (B2)]]
|mg
|0.13
|0.09
|0.13
|0.06
|0.04
|0.11
|0.04
|0.05
|-
|[[Vitamin B3|Niacin (B3)]]
|mg
|2
|1.6
|2.1
|0.4
|2.9
|1.9
|1.7
|3.0
|-
|[[Pantothenic acid|Pantothenic acid (B5)]]
|mg
|0.1
|0.2
|0.4
|0.6
|0.7
|0.7
|0.2
|0.4
|-
|[[Vitamin B6|Pyridoxine (B6)]]
|mg
|0.1
|0.1
|0.2
|0.05
|0.2
|0.1
|0.2
|0.2
|-
|[[Folic acid|Folic acid (B9)]]
|mcg
|9
|11
|38
|25
|10
|17
|9
|19
|}

== Production and trade commodities ==

[[File:Starokostiantyniv Grain Elevator after Russian missile attack, 2023-08-06 (01).jpg|thumb|A grain elevator on fire in Ukraine, 2023. The Russian invasion of Ukraine disrupted its wheat exports and the global [[cereal trade]].]]

Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage, whether measured by production<ref name="IDRC"/> or by international trade. Several major producers of cereals dominate the market.<ref name="FAO 2023"/> Because of the scale of the trade, some countries have become reliant on imports, thus cereals [[Food prices|pricing]] or availability can have outsized impacts on countries with a food trade imbalance and thus [[food security]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=OECD |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2023-2032_08801ab7-en |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032 |last2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=2023-07-06 |publisher=OECD |isbn=978-92-64-61933-3 |language=en |chapter=3. Cereals |doi=10.1787/19991142 |chapter-url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/0f858aab-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/0f858aab-en}}</ref> [[Speculation]], as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the [[2008 financial crisis]], created rapid inflation of grain prices during the [[2007–2008 world food price crisis]].<ref name="WFSFAO">{{cite web |title=World Food Situation |url=http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085859/http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/en/ |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=24 April 2011 |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Other disruptions, such as climate change or war related changes to supply or transportation can create further food insecurity; for example the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022 disrupted Ukrainian and Russian wheat supplies causing a [[World food crises (2022–present)|global food price crisis in 2022]] that affected countries heavily dependent on wheat flour.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Pei |first1=Qing |last2=Zhang |first2=David Dian |last3=Xu |first3=Jingjing |chapter=Price Responses of Grain Market under Climate Change in Pre-industrial Western Europe by ARX Modelling |date=August 2014 |title=Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Simulation and Modeling Methodologies, Technologies and Applications |conference=2014 4th International Conference on Simulation and Modeling Methodologies, Technologies and Applications (SIMULTECH) |pages=811–817 |doi=10.5220/0005025208110817 |isbn=978-989-758-038-3 |s2cid=8045747 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Time">{{Cite magazine |title=Climate Change is Likely to Devastate the Global Food Supply |url=https://time.com/5663621/climate-change-food-supply/ |access-date=2022-04-02 |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CLIMATE CHANGE LINKED TO GLOBAL RISE IN FOOD PRICES – Climate Change |url=https://climatechange.medill.northwestern.edu/2015/02/10/climate-change-linked-to-global-rise-in-food-prices/ |access-date=2022-04-02 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018125750/https://climatechange.medill.northwestern.edu/2015/02/10/climate-change-linked-to-global-rise-in-food-prices/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lustgarten |first=Abrahm |date=2020-12-16 |title=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html |access-date=2022-04-02 |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Production ===

{{See also|List of countries by cereal production}}

[[File:Ethiopie-Battage du teff (4).jpg|thumb|left|Threshing [[teff]], Ethiopia, 2007]]

Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced.<ref name="IDRC">{{cite web |url=https://www.idrc.ca/en |title=IDRC - International Development Research Centre |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609075145/https://www.idrc.ca/en |archive-date=9 June 2016 |website=[[International Development Research Centre]]}}</ref> Three cereals, maize, wheat, and rice, together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of [[food energy]] in 2009,<ref name="prodstat">{{cite web |title=ProdSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210214103/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |archive-date=10 February 2012 |access-date=9 July 2020 |work=[[FAOSTAT]]}}</ref> while the production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels.<ref name="Ritchie-2013"/>

Other cereals not included in the U.N.'s [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] statistics include [[wild rice]], which is grown in small amounts in North America, and [[teff]], an ancient grain that is a staple in [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/> Teff is grown in sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is often used to make [[injera]]. It can be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal like [[Farina (food)|farina]] with a chocolate or nutty flavor.<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/>

<gallery mode=packed widths=600 heights=400>
File:Production Of Cereals (2021).svg|Production of cereals worldwide, by country in 2021
</gallery>

The table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, and 2019/2020.{{efn |1961 is the earliest year for which [[FAO]] statistics are available.}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |access-date=30 August 2022 |website=[[FAOSTAT]] (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics Division) |archive-date=6 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106022112/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ritchie-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |last2=Roser |first2=Max |author2-link=Max Roser |date=17 October 2013 |title=Crop Yields |url=https://ourworldindata.org/crop-yields |journal=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=27 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727075346/https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-in-agriculture/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Grain
! colspan="5" nowrap="" |Worldwide production 
(millions of metric tons)
! rowspan="2" |Notes
|-
!1961
!1980
!2000
!2010
!2019/20
|-
|[[Maize]] (corn)
|205
|397
|592
|852
|1,148
|A staple food of people in the Americas, Africa, and of [[livestock]] worldwide; often called corn in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. A large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption.<ref name="Wrigley-2016">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/939553708 |title=Encyclopedia of food grains |date=2016 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-394786-4 |editor-last=Wrigley |editor-first=Colin W. |edition=2nd |location=Kidlington, Oxford, England |oclc=939553708 |editor-last2=Corke |editor-first2=Harold |editor-last3=Seetharaman |editor-first3=Koushik |editor-last4=Faubion |editor-first4=Jonathan |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830133457/https://www.worldcat.org/title/939553708 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|[[Rice]]{{efn |The weight given is for paddy rice}} Production is in milled terms.
|285
|397
|599
|697
|755
|The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions. [[Staple food]] in most of [[Brazil]], other parts of [[Latin America]] and some other Portuguese-descended cultures, parts of Africa (even more before the [[Columbian exchange]]), most of [[South Asia]] and the [[Far East]]. Largely overridden by [[breadfruit]] (a dicot tree) during the South Pacific's part of the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] expansion.<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/>
|-
|[[Wheat]]
|222
|440
|585
|641
|768
|The primary cereal of temperate regions. It has a worldwide consumption but it is a staple food of North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Brazil and much of the [[Greater Middle East]]. [[Wheat gluten (food)|Wheat gluten]]-based meat substitutes are important in the Far East (albeit less than [[tofu]]) and are said to resemble meat texture more than others.<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/>
|-
|[[Barley]]
|72
|157
|133
|123
|159
|Grown for [[malt]]ing and [[livestock]] on land too poor or too cold for wheat.<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/>
|-
|[[Commercial sorghum|Sorghum]]
|41
|57
|56
|60
|58
|Important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock.<ref name="Wrigley-2016"/>
|-
|[[Millet]]
|26
|25
|28
|33
|28
|A group of similar cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.<ref name="Wrigley-2016" />
|-
|[[Oat]]s
|50
|41
|26
|20
|23
|Popular worldwide as a breakfast food, such as in [[porridge]], and livestock feed.<ref name="WGC">{{cite web |title=Types of Oats |publisher=Whole Grains Council |url=http://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/types-of-oats |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629041311/http://wholegrainscouncil.org/whole-grains-101/types-of-oats |archive-date=29 June 2015 |access-date=25 June 2015 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Triticale]]
|0
|0.17
|9
|14
|—
|[[Hybrid (biology)|Hybrid]] of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye.<ref name="Wrigley-2016" />
|-
|[[Rye]]
|35
|25
|20
|12
|13
|Important in cold climates. Rye grain is used for [[flour]], [[Rye bread|bread]], [[Rye beer|beer]], [[crispbread]], some [[Rye whiskey|whiskeys]], some [[vodka]]s, and animal [[fodder]].<ref name="Wrigley-2016" />
|-
|[[Fonio]]
|0.18
|0.15
|0.31
|0.56
|—
|Several varieties are grown as food crops in Africa.<ref name="Wrigley-2016" />
|}

=== Trade ===

{{further|Grain trade}}

[[File:Bulk carrier arriving in port (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[Bulk cargo|bulk grain]] ship, 2006]]

Cereals are the most traded [[commodities]] by quantity in 2021, with wheat, maize, and rice the main cereals involved. The Americas and Europe are the largest exporters, and Asia is the largest importer.<ref name="FAO 2023"/> The largest exporter of maize is the US, while India is the largest exporter of rice. China is the largest importer of maize and of rice. Many other countries trade cereals, both as exporters and as importers.<ref name="FAO 2023">{{cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13  |date=2023 |doi=10.4060/cc8166en |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 }}</ref> Cereals are [[futures trading|traded as futures]] on world [[commodity market]]s, helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price for example, if harvests fail.<ref name="Atkin 2024">{{cite book |last1=Atkin |first1=Michael |title=Agricultural Commodity Markets: A Guide to Futures Trading |date=2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781003845379 |chapter=6. Grains}}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed widths=600 heights=500>
File:Main Traded Cereals, Top Importers And Exporters (Quantities, 2021).svg|Main traded cereals, top import, export in 2021
</gallery>

== See also ==

{{Div col |colwidth=22em}}
<!--don't link Breakfast cereal here, it's already in the article-->
* [[Food price crisis]]
* [[Food quality]]
* [[Food safety]]
* [[Lists of foods]]
* [[Post-harvest losses (grains)|Post-harvest losses]]
* [[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==

{{notelist}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Sources ==

* {{Free-content attribution |title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |author = FAO |publisher = FAO |documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf |license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0}}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Davidson (food writer) |chapter=Mexico |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Food]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2014 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rosentrater |first1=Kurt August |title=Kent's Technology of Cereals: An Introduction for Students of Food Science and Agriculture |last2=Evers |first2=Anthony D. |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-08-100532-3 |edition=5th |location=Duxford, England |oclc=1004672994}}

{{Cereals}}
{{Vegetarianism}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cereals|Cereals]]
[[Category:Crops]]