Editing Cetacean surfacing behaviour

{{Short description|Cetacean movement types}}
[[File:Jumping Humpback whale.jpg|right|thumb|[[Humpback whale]] breaching]]

'''Cetacean surfacing behaviour''' is a grouping of movement types that [[cetacean]]s make at the water's surface in addition to breathing. Cetaceans have developed and use surface behaviours for many functions such as display, feeding and communication. All regularly observed members of the order Cetacea, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, show a range of surfacing behaviours. 

Cetacea is usually split into two suborders, [[Odontoceti]] and [[Mysticeti]], based on the presence of teeth or baleen plates in adults respectively. However, when considering behaviour, Cetacea can be split into whales (cetaceans more than 10 m long such as sperm and most baleen whales) and dolphins and porpoises (all Odontocetes less than 10 m long including [[orca]]<ref name="test_2">[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/t0725e/t0725e10.pdf]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, FAO Marine Mammals of the World, Suborder Odontoceti.</ref>) as many behaviours are correlated with size. 

Although some behaviours such as spyhopping, logging and lobtailing occur in both groups, others such as bow riding or peduncle throws are exclusive to one or the other. It is these energetic behaviours that humans observe most frequently, which has resulted in a large amount of scientific literature on the subject and a popular [[Whale watching|tourism industry]].

== Travelling surface behaviour ==
=== Breaching and lunging === <!--'Breach' seems to link here, regardless of classification-->
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:Anim1091 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|Humpback whale spinner-breaching
File:Dwarf sperm whale (NOAA Pitman).jpg|[[Dwarf sperm whale]] breaching
File:Killerwhales jumping.jpg|[[Orca]]s double-breaching off the south side of [[Unimak Island]], [[Alaska]]
File:Hector'sDolphinsCloudyBay 21Feb2012 AnjanetteBaker.tif|[[Hector's Dolphin]]s off [[Cloudy Bay]], New Zealand
</gallery>
[[File:Humpback juvenile breach sequence.jpg|right|thumb|[[Humpback whale]] breach sequence]]
A ''breach'' or a ''lunge'' is a leap out of the water, also known as cresting. The distinction between the two is fairly arbitrary: cetacean researcher [[Hal Whitehead]] defines a breach as any leap in which at least 40% of the animal's body clears the water, and a lunge as a leap with less than 40% clearance.<ref name="Hal">{{Citation|title=Publications List|author=Whitehead Lab|url=http://whitelab.biology.dal.ca/labpub.htm|access-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> Qualitatively, a breach is a genuine jump with an intent to clear the water, whereas a lunge is the result of a fast upward-sloping swim that has caused the whale to clear the surface of the water unintentionally. This latter "lunging" behaviour is often a result of feeding in [[rorqual]]s.<ref name="Ware2011">{{Citation|title=Shallow and deep lunge feeding of humpback whales in fjords of the West Antarctic Peninsula|first1=C.|last1=Ware|first2=A. S.|last2=Friedlaender|first3=D. P.|last3=Nowacek|year=2011|journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=27|issue=3|pages=587–605|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2010.00427.x|bibcode=2011MMamS..27..587W }}</ref> The right, humpback, and sperm whales are the most widely observed jumpers. However other [[baleen whale]]s such as [[Fin whale|fin]], [[Blue whale|blue]], [[Minke whale|minke]], [[Gray whale|gray]] and [[Sei whale|sei]] whales also breach. [[Oceanic dolphin]]s, including the [[orca]], are very common breachers and are in fact capable of lifting themselves completely out of the water very easily, although there is little distinction between this and [[#Porpoising|porpoising]]. Some non-cetacean marine creatures also exhibit breaching behavior, such as several shark species and rays of the genera ''[[Manta ray|Manta]]'' and ''[[Mobula]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.malbertphoto.com/mobulas1.html|title=The Flying Mobulas of the Sea of Cortez|author=Paul and Michael Albert|date=26 June 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504035343/http://www.malbertphoto.com/mobulas1.html|archive-date=4 May 2013}}</ref>

Two techniques are used by cetaceans in order to breach. The first method, most common in sperm and humpback whales, is conducted by swimming vertically upwards from depth, and heading straight out of the water.<ref name="Dodo">{{citation|title=This is how whales break through the surface of the water|author=The Dodo|access-date=2015-05-25|url=https://www.thedodo.com/whales-breach-underwater-gifs-736758901.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525104940/https://www.thedodo.com/whales-breach-underwater-gifs-736758901.html|archive-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> The other more common method is to travel close to the surface and parallel to it, and then jerk upwards at full speed with as few as 3 tail strokes to perform a breach.<ref name="Dodo" /><ref name="CB">{{Citation|title=Breaching|publisher=Conscious Breath Adventures|url=http://consciousbreathadventures.com/breaching/|access-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> In all breaches the cetacean clears the water with the majority of its body at an acute angle, such as an average of 30° to the horizontal as recorded in sperm whales.<ref>{{citation|title=Sperm whales: social evolution in the ocean|author=Hal Whitehead|year=2003|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/179 179]|isbn=978-0-226-89517-8|url=https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/179}}</ref> The whale then turns to land on its back or side, and less frequently may not turn but "belly flop" instead. In order to achieve 90% clearance, a humpback needs to leave the water at a speed of eight metres per second or {{convert|29|km/h}}. For a {{convert|36|MT|ST}} animal, this results in a [[momentum]] of 288 thousand [[newton second]]s. Despite its energetic cost, breaching is often carried out in series. The longest recorded sustained series was by a humpback near the [[West Indies]] totaling 130 leaps in less than 90 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/marine/whales/whale_behaviour.html|title=Whale Behaviour|date=26 February 2015 |publisher=Animal Corner}}</ref> Repeated breaches tire the animal, so less of the body clears the water each time.<ref name="Whitehead2003">{{Citation |title=Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean |first=Hal |last=Whitehead |page=181|isbn=978-0-226-89517-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKXdCli7nI0C&pg=PA181 |year=2003|publisher =University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}}</ref>

Ultimately, the reasons for breaching are unknown; however, there is evidence to support a range of hypotheses. Whales are more likely to breach when they are in groups, suggesting that it is a non-verbal signal to other group members during social behaviour. Scientists have called this theory [[signalling theory|"honest signalling"]]. The immense cloud of bubbles and underwater disturbance following a breach cannot be faked; neighbours then know a breach has taken place. A single breach costs a whale only about 0.075% of its total daily energy intake, but a long series of breaches may add up to a significant energy expenditure.<ref name="Whitehead2003" /> A breach is therefore a sign that the animal is physically fit enough to afford energy for this acrobatic display, hence it could be used for ascertaining dominance, courting or warning of danger.<ref name="Dodo" /> It is also possible that the loud "smack" upon re-entering is useful for stunning or scaring prey, similar to [[#Lobtailing and slapping|lobtailing]]. As breaching is often seen in rough seas it is possible that a breach allows the whale to breathe in air that is not close to the surface and full of spray, or that they use breaching to communicate when the noise of the ocean would mask acoustic signals.<ref name="USCB">{{Citation|title=Why do whales and other sea mammals breach?|author=USCB ScienceLine|url=http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=682}}</ref> Another widely accepted possible reason is to dislodge parasites from the skin.<ref name="USCB" /> The behaviour may also be more simply a form of play.<ref name="USCB" />

=== Porpoising ===
<gallery widths="250px" heights="220px">
File:Hourglas dolphin crop.jpg|[[Hourglass dolphin]]s in [[Drake Passage]]
File:Anim0796 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|[[Southern right whale dolphin]]s porpoising
</gallery>
''Porpoising'', also known as running,<ref name="OH4">{{Citation|title=At high speeds dolphins save energy by leaping. |date=1980 |first1=D. |last1=Au |first2=D. |last2=Weihs |journal=Nature |volume=284 |issue=5756 |pages=548–550 |doi=10.1038/284548a0|bibcode=1980Natur.284..548A |s2cid=4334691 }}</ref> is a high speed surface behaviour of small cetaceans where long jumps are alternated with swimming close to the surface. Despite the name, porpoising behaviour is seen in dolphins and porpoises, as well as other marine species such as [[penguins]]<ref name="OH5">{{Citation|title=The porpoising of penguins an energy-conserving behaviour for respiratory ventilation? |first1=C. A. |last1=Hui |year=1987 |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=65 |pages=209–211 |doi=10.1139/z87-031}}</ref> and [[pinnipeds]].<ref name="OH6">{{Citation|title=Dynamics of dolphin porpoising revisited |first1=D. |last1=Weihs |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |year=2002 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=1071–1078 |doi=10.1093/icb/42.5.1071 |pmid=21680390|doi-access=free }}</ref> When [[marine mammals]] are travelling at speed they are forced to stay close to the surface in order to maintain [[Breathing|respiration]] for the energetic exercise. At leisurely cruising speeds below 4.6&nbsp;m/s, dolphins swim below the water's surface and only briefly expose their [[blowhole (anatomy)|blowholes]] along with up to one third of their body at any one time.<ref name="OH4" /> This results in little splashing as they have a very streamlined shape.<ref name="OH6" /> Porpoising occurs mainly when dolphins and porpoises are swimming at speeds greater than 4.6&nbsp;m/s.<ref name="OH4" /> Here, jump length is roughly equal to distance traveled when the cetaceans are submerged.<ref name="OH4" /> This exposes the blowhole for longer which is needed to get enough oxygen to maintain [[metabolism]] and therefore high speeds over long periods of time. Studies have also shown that leaping is more energetically efficient than swimming above a certain threshold speed.<ref name="OH4" /> This is due to the reduction in friction when travelling in air compared to water which saves more energy than is needed to produce the leap.<ref name="OH6" /> These benefits also outweigh the energy wasted due to the large amount of splashing often seen when groups are porpoising.<ref name="OH4" /> Porpoising is therefore a result of high speed swimming which cetaceans use for important pursuit and escape activities. For example, dolphins may be seen porpoising away from their main predator, [[sharks]]<ref name="test 6">{{Citation|title=Shark attacks on bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in Shark Bay, Western Australia: attack rate, bite scar frequencies, and attack seasonality |journal=Marine Mammal Science |pages=526–539 |volume=17 |issue=3 |year=2001 |first1=M. R. |last1=Heithaus |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01002.x|bibcode=2001MMamS..17..526H }}</ref> or the direction of incoming boats to avoid collision.<ref name="test_7">{{Citation|title=Effects of tour boats on the behavior of bottlenose dolphins: using Markov chains to model anthropogenic impacts |year=2003 |first1=D. |last1=Lusseau |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=1785–1793 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00054.x|bibcode=2003ConBi..17.1785L |s2cid=83589031 }}</ref>

Although porpoising is a useful product of rapid swimming, much variation seen in the behaviour cannot be explained by this cause alone; it has likely evolved to provide other functions. For example, the rotation during porpoising by the [[spinner dolphin]] leads to much splashing and is more common at slower speeds<ref name="OH4" /> so cannot be attributed to an energy saving mechanism. It is therefore more likely to be a form of play or communication within or between pods.<ref name="OH4" /> Another reason might be to remove [[barnacles]] or [[remora]]s that, when attached, increase drag during swimming.<ref name="test_10">{{Citation|title=Mechanics of remora removal by dolphin spinning |year=2007 |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=707–714 |first1=D. |last1=Weihs |first2=F. E. |last2=Fish |first3=A. J. |last3=Nicastro |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2007.00131.x|bibcode=2007MMamS..23..707W }}</ref> When spinner dolphins impact the water the combination of [[centrifugal force|centrifugal]] and vertical force upon these [[ectoparasites]] can be up to 700 times their own weight and so efficiently remove them.<ref name="test_10" /> Other theories suggest that cetaceans may porpoise in order to observe distant objects such as food by looking for visual cues, such as birds dive-bombing a [[bait ball]].<ref name="test_8">[http://www.dolphins-world.com/why-do-dolphins-jump-out-of-the-water/], "Why do dolphins jump out of the water?", Dolphin World FAQ.</ref> Research into the additional functions of porpoising has so far been focussed on the more acrobatic species, but it is likely that other cetaceans also use it for these, and perhaps unknown, reasons too.

=== Wave or bow-riding and following vessels ===
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:091201 south georgia orca 5127 (4173388802).jpg|"Type B" orcas off [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]
File:Weißwal 2-1999.jpg|[[Beluga whale|Belugas]] following watching boats in [[Churchill River (Hudson Bay)|Churchill River]]
File:US Navy 090415-N-3027S-002 Dolphins jump the wake in front of the Military Sealift Command fast-combat support ship USNS Rainer (T-AOE 7) during an ammunition onload with the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN 68).jpg
</gallery>
The term ''wave-riding'' is most commonly used to describe the surface activity of cetaceans that approach boats and jump repeatedly in the waves produced by the boats. This includes ''bow-riding'', where cetaceans are in the pressure wave in front of the boat, and ''wake-riding'', where they are off the stern in the wake.<ref name="Miller2010">{{Citation|title=Seasonal and Diurnal Patterns of Behavior Exhibited by Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphins (''Tursiops truncatus'') in the Mississippi Sound|journal=Ethology|year=2010|first1=L. J.|last1=Miller|first2=M.|last2=Solangi|first3=S. A.|last3=Kuczaj|volume=116|issue=12|pages=1127–1137|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01824.x|bibcode=2010Ethol.116.1127M }}</ref> Cetaceans swim using fluke propulsion when experiencing wave energy below the threshold needed for riding, such as when boats travel at speeds slower than 3&nbsp;m/s<ref name="Williams1992">{{Citation|title=Travel at low energetic cost by swimming and wave-riding bottlenose dolphins|journal=Nature|year=1992|volume=355|issue=6363|pages=821–823|first1=T. M.|last1=Williams|first2=W. A.|last2=Friedl|first3=M. L.|last3=Fong|first4=R. M.|last4=Yamada|first5=P.|last5=Sedivy|first6=J. E.|last6=Huan|doi=10.1038/355821a0|pmid=1538760|bibcode=1992Natur.355..821W|s2cid=4281153}}</ref> or when they are outside of the peak wave energy zone. However, at higher speeds dolphins and porpoises will seek out the pressure wave and its maximum energy zone in order to ride the wave by holding their flukes in a fixed plane, with only minor adjustments for repositioning.<ref name="Williams1992" /> Wave-riding reduces the energetic cost of swimming to the dolphin, even when compared to slower swimming speeds.<ref name="Williams1992" /> For example, [[heart rate]], [[metabolic rate]] and transport cost was reduced by up to 70% during wave-riding compared to swimming at speeds 1&nbsp;m/s slower in [[bottlenose dolphin]].<ref name="Williams1992" /> Wave-riding behaviour can be performed by dolphins from minutes up to several hours,<ref name="Williams1992" /> and therefore is a useful energy-saving mechanism for swimming at higher speeds.

Wave-riding is most common in small [[Odontocete]]s. It has also been observed in larger cetaceans such as [[false killer whale]]s and [[orca]],<ref name="nbc">{{cite news |author1=Rafael Avitabile |title=Fishing charter crew captures orca pod playing in boat's wake |url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/fishing-charter-crew-captures-orca-pod-playing-in-boats-wake/50262/ |access-date=5 November 2020 |work=NBC News - San Diego |date=10 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Dahlheim1980">{{Citation|title=Killer whales observed bowriding|first1=M. E.|last1=Dahlheim|journal=The Murrelet|volume=61|issue=2|pages=78–80|jstor=3535038|year=1980}}</ref> although most larger Odontocetes do not seek out any form of interaction with boats. Bow-riding is the most common form of interactive behaviour with boats across a variety of smaller Odontocete species, such as dolphins in the genera ''[[Stenella]]'' and ''[[Delphinus (genus)|Delphinus]]''.<ref name="Ritter2003">{{Citation|title=Interactions of cetaceans with whale watching boats–implications for the management of whale watching tourism|year=2003|first1=F.|last1=Ritter|journal=MEER EV, Berlin, Germany|url=http://www.m-e-e-r.org/uploads/media/Executive_Summary_Report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154259/http://www.m-e-e-r.org/uploads/media/Executive_Summary_Report.pdf|archive-date=2015-05-24}}</ref> The type of interaction can often depend on the behavioral state of the group as well as species. For example, spotted dolphins are more likely to interact when travelling or milling but less likely when they are socialising or surface feeding.<ref name="Ritter2003" /> Interactive behavior may also depend on group composition, as both orca and bottlenose dolphins have been recorded to interact mostly when a calf was in the group.<ref name="Ritter2003"/><ref name="Hawkins2009">{{Citation|title=Interactive behaviours of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) during encounters with vessels|first1=E.|last1=Hawkins|first2=D. F.|last2=Gartside|year=2009|journal=Aquatic Mammals|volume=35|issue=2|pages=259–268|doi=10.1578/AM.35.2.2009.259}}</ref> This indicates that groups with calves may approach boats in order to teach the young how to interact safely to avoid collision. Another result of cetaceans traveling in pods is an increase in competition for the optimal wave energy and so maximum energy saving position. Position of individuals may reflect the dominance [[hierarchy]] of the pod and therefore could be used to ascertain dominance.<ref name="Dahlheim1980" /> Several [[rorqual]]s, such as [[minke whale|minke]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/maceg/image/3653655|title=La baleine s'amuse by Gilles Macé|website=PBase|access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> [[sei whale|sei]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50dEXQSjdSI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/50dEXQSjdSI |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=クジラの大群|last=橘田佳音利|date=7 March 2014|access-date=24 September 2018|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Bryde's whale|bryde's]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expeditions.com/daily-expedition-reports/179002/|title=Boná Island and Panama Canal, Panama|date=January 14, 2016|work=Expeditions.com}}</ref> [[humpback whale|humpback]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20021230_log_transcript.html|title=Bowriding Humpback Whales – Log Transcript|date=December 30, 2002|work=PBS}}</ref> and [[gray whale|gray]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fox5sandiego.com/2016/02/03/2-gray-whales-caught-some-waves-near-mission-beach/|title=2 gray whales catch waves near Mission Beach|date=February 3, 2016|work=FOX5 San Diego}}</ref> are also known to display actions in similar manners.

==== Gallery ====
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jumping_dolphins Jumping dolphins]

== Stationary surface behaviour ==
{{see also|Bubble net feeding}}
=== Spyhopping ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Great white shark]] and [[Bowhead whale]] -->
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:Type C Orcas.jpg|Orca ("type C") spyhopping
File:Humpback Megaptera novaeangliae.jpg|[[Southern minke whale]] spyhopping in Antarctica
</gallery>

When ''spyhopping'', the whale rises and holds a vertical position partially out of the water, often exposing its entire [[rostrum (anatomy)|rostrum]] and head. It is visually akin to a human [[treading water]]. Spyhopping is controlled and slow, and can last for minutes at a time if the whale is sufficiently inquisitive about whatever it is viewing. Generally, the whale does not appear to swim by fluke propulsion to maintain its "elevated" position while spyhopping, instead relying on exceptional buoyancy control and positioning with pectoral fins. Typically the whale's eyes will be slightly above or below the surface of the water, enabling it to see whatever is nearby on the surface.<ref name="NG">{{Citation|url=http://education.nationalgeographic.com.au/education/media/spyhopping/?ar_a=1|publisher=National Geographic|title=Gray Whale Spyhop|access-date=2015-05-25|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525151508/http://education.nationalgeographic.com.au/education/media/spyhopping/?ar_a=1|archive-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> Different species of sharks, including the [[great white shark]] and [[oceanic whitetip shark]], have also been known to spyhop.<ref name="MarcBaldwin">{{cite web |url=https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/animals/article/elasmobranch-behaviour |title=Elasmobranch Behaviour |last=Baldwin |first=Marc |website=Wildlife Online |access-date=August 7, 2020}}<!--Webpage itself cites a book and journal article detailing both species' spy-hopping behavior--></ref><ref name="SarahKeartes">{{cite web |url=https://www.earthtouchnews.com/oceans/sharks/what-is-the-shark-steps-on-lego-shark-actually-doing/ |title=What is the shark-steps-on-Lego shark actually doing? |last=Keartes |first=Sarah |date=October 5, 2016 |website=[[Earth-Touch|Earth Touch News]] |access-date=August 7, 2020}}<!--Fairly reputable nature news source--></ref>

Spyhopping often occurs during a "mugging" situation, where the focus of a whale's attention is on a boat, such as whale-watching tours, which they sometimes approach and interact with.<ref>{{Citation|title=Behavioral response of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) to vessel traffic|year=2003|journal=Marine Environmental Research|first1=S. L.|last1=Ng|first2=S.|last2=Leung|volume=56|issue=5|pages=555–567|doi=10.1016/S0141-1136(03)00041-2|pmid=12927738|bibcode=2003MarER..56..555N }}</ref> On the other hand, spyhopping among [[orca]]s is thought to aid predation, as they are often seen around ice floes attempting to view [[predation|prey]] species such as seals that are resting on the floes.<ref name="Pitman2012">{{Citation|title=Cooperative hunting behavior, prey selectivity and prey handling by pack ice killer whales (Orcinus orca), type B, in Antarctic Peninsula waters|journal=Marine Mammal Science|first1=R. L.|last1=Pitman|first2=J. W.|last2=Durban|year=2012|volume=28|issue=1|pages=16–36|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2010.00453.x|bibcode=2012MMamS..28...16P |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1305&context=usdeptcommercepub|url-access=subscription}}</ref> When prey is detected the individual will conduct a series of spy-hops from different locations around it, then vocalise to the group members to do the same to possibly prepare for an attack.<ref name="Pitman2012" /> In this instance a spyhop may be more useful than a breach, because the view is held steady for a longer period of time. Often when cetaceans breach, their eyes do not clear the water, which suggests it might not be used for looking but instead for hearing. For example, [[gray whale]]s will often spy-hop in order to hear better when they are near the line where waves begin to break in the ocean as this marks out their migration route.<ref name="NG" />

=== Lobtailing and slapping ===
{{see also|Tail sailing}}
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:031 Humpback whale lobtailing Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|Humpback whale lobtailing at Ísafjarðardjúp, Iceland
File:Whale tail flip.jpg|Humpback whale tail-slapping off the coast of Molokai, Hawaii
File:Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) (14902935282).jpg|Humpback whale tail-slapping with [[California sea lion]]s
File:A bowhead whale is tail-slapping in the coastal waters of western Sea of Okhotsk by Olga Shpak, Marine Mammal Council, IEE RAS.jpg|Bowhead whale tail-slapping in Shantar Islands
</gallery>

''Lobtailing'' is the act of a whale or dolphin lifting its [[fluke (tail)|fluke]]s out of the water and then bringing them down onto the surface of the water hard and fast in order to make a loud slap. Large whales tend to lobtail by positioning themselves vertically downwards into the water and then slapping the surface by bending the tail stock. Dolphins, however, tend to remain horizontal, either on their belly or their back, and make the slap via a jerky whole body movement. All species are likely to slap several times in a single session. Like breaching, lobtailing is common amongst active cetacean species such as sperm, humpback, right and [[gray whale]]s. It is less common, but still occasionally occurs, amongst the other large whales. [[Porpoise]]s and [[river dolphin]]s rarely lobtail, but it is a very common phenomenon amongst [[oceanic dolphin]]s. Lobtailing is more common within species that have a complex social order than those where animals are more likely to be solitary. Lobtailing often occurs in conjunction with other aerial behaviour such as breaching. Species with large [[flipper (anatomy)|flippers]] may also slap them against the water for a similar effect, known as [[#Pectoral slapping|pectoral slapping]].{{Cn|date=June 2023}}

The sound of a lobtail can be heard underwater several hundred metres from the site of a slap. This has led to speculation amongst scientists that lobtailing is, like breaching, a form of non-vocal communication. However, studies of [[bowhead whale]]s have shown that the noise of a lobtail travels much less well than that of a vocal call or a breach. Thus the lobtail is probably important visually as well as acoustically, and may be a sign of aggression. Some suggest that lobtailing in [[humpback whale]]s is a means of foraging. The hypothesis is that the loud noise causes fish to become frightened, thus tightening their [[school (biology)|school]] together, making it easier for the humpback to feed on them.<ref name="Weinrich1992">{{Citation|title=Evidence for acquisition of a novel feeding behaviour: lobtail feeding in humpback whales, ''Megaptera novaeangliae''|first1=Mason T. |last1=Weinrich |first2=Mark R.|last2=Schilling |first3=Cynthia R. |last3=Belt |journal=Animal Behaviour
|volume=44|issue=6 |date=December 1992 |pages=1059–1072 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80318-5|s2cid=53270820 }}</ref> In this instance, lobtail feeding behaviour appeared to progressively spread throughout the population, as it increased from 0 to 50% of the population using it over the 9-year study.<ref name="Weinrich1992" /> As no individual under 2 years old nor any mothers were observed to use lobtail feeding it suggests that it is taught in foraging groups. The spread of lobtail feeding amongst humpback whales indicates its success as a novel foraging method.<ref name="Weinrich1992"/>

==== Gallery ====
*''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Whales_with_raised_tail Whales with raised tail]'' on Wikimedia Commons.

=== Peduncle throw ===
A ''[[caudal peduncle|peduncle]] throw'', also known as ''peduncling'', is a surfacing behaviour unique to humpback whales. During this the humpback converts its forward momentum into a crack-the-whip rotation, pivoting with its pectorals as it drives its head downward and thrusts its entire fluke and peduncle (the muscular rear portion of the torso) out of the water and sideways, before crashing into the water with terrific force. Peduncling takes place among the focal animals (female, escort, challenging male) in a competitive group, apparently as an aggressive gesture. Possibilities include escorts fending off a particular challenging male, females who seem agitated with an escort, or an individual not comfortable with a watching boat's presence. Occasionally, one whale performs a series of dozens of peduncle throws, directed at the same target each time.<ref name="Kaniklides">{{Citation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262894383|title=The effects of volcanic tsunamis on marine mammals|author=Dr Stavros Kaniklides|access-date=2015-05-26}}</ref>

=== Pectoral slapping ===
<gallery widths="250px" heights="220px">
File:Southern right whale3.jpg|[[Southern right whale]] showing pectoral fins
File:Abrolhos e suas maravilhas.jpg|Humpback whales
</gallery>

''Pectoral slapping'', informally known as pec-slapping, is when a cetacean turns on its side, exposes one or both [[pectoral fins]] into the air, and then slaps them against the surface of the water. It is a form of non-vocal communication<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kavanagh, A. S., Owen, K., Williamson, M. J., Noad, M. J., Goldizen, A. W., Kniest, E., Cato, D. H., Dunlop, R. A.|date=January 2017|title=Evidence for the functions of surface-active behaviors in humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310664934|journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=33|issue=1 |pages=313–334|via=ResearchGate|doi=10.1111/mms.12374|bibcode=2017MMamS..33..313K }}</ref> commonly observed in a variety of whale and dolphin species as well as seals. The motion is slow and controlled, and the behaviour can occur repeatedly by one individual over a few minutes.<ref name="OH1">{{Citation
|title=Non-song acoustic communication in migrating humpback whales (''Megaptera novaeangliae'').
|first1=R. A. |last1=Dunlop |first2=D. H. |last2=Cato |first3=M. J. |last3=Noad |journal=Marine Mammal Science
|volume=24 |issue=3 |date=2008 |pages=613–629 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00208.x|bibcode=2008MMamS..24..613D }}</ref> The [[humpback whale]]'s pectoral fin is the largest appendage of any mammal and humpbacks are known for their extremely acrobatic behaviour. Pec-slapping varies between groups of different social structure, such as not occurring in lone males but being common in mother calf pairs and also when they are accompanied by an escort.<ref name="OH1" /> The reasons for pec-slapping therefore can vary depending on age and sex of individual humpback whales. During the breeding season adult males pec-slap before they disassociate with a group of males that are vying for a female, whereas adult females pec-slap to attract potential mates and indicate that she is sexually receptive.<ref name="OH2">{{Citation
|title=Humpback whale (''Megaptera novaeangliae'') communication: The context and potential functions of pec-slapping behavior on the Hawaiian wintering grounds. |first1=M. H. |last1=Deakos |journal=Doctoral Dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa |date=2012 |hdl=10125/7066 |type=Thesis }}</ref> Its function between mother calf pairs is less well known but is likely to be a form of play and communication that is taught to the calf by the mother for use when it is sexually mature.<ref name="OH2" /> Pectoral slapping has also been observed in the [[right whale]], but due to its smaller size, the sound produced will be quieter<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/north-atlantic-right-whale/eubalaena-glacialis/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208235009/http://www.arkive.org/north-atlantic-right-whale/eubalaena-glacialis/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2008-12-08|title=North Atlantic right whale |publisher=Arkive |access-date=2015-05-04}}</ref> and therefore used for communication over smaller distances unlike the humpback. Exposure of the pectoral fin and consequent slapping has also been infrequently observed in blue whales, where it is most often a by-product of lunge feeding followed by rolling on to its side.

=== Logging ===
<gallery widths="190px" heights="180px">
File:Whales south africa.jpg|Southern right whales resting
File:Grönlandwal 6-1999.jpg|Bowhead whale sleeping 
File:Eschrichtius robustus Nootka 3.jpg|[[Gray whale]] cavorting
</gallery>
''Logging'' is a behaviour that whales exhibit when at rest and appear like "logs" at the surface.<ref>{{Citation |chapter-url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/whale1.htm |title=Howstuffworks
|chapter=How Whales Work|access-date=2006-11-27 |first=Tom |last=Harris|date=13 July 2001
}}</ref> It is defined as lying without forward movement at the surface of the water with the dorsal fin or parts of the back are exposed.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.marinediscoverycentre.com.au/Downloads/Whales.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828171414/https://www.marinediscoverycentre.com.au/Downloads/Whales.pdf|archive-date=28 August 2006
|title="Whales"|publisher=Marine Discovery Centre, Henley Beach, S. A.
|access-date=17 November 2024 }}</ref> Whales often rest for periods of time under the surface in order to sleep in mainly horizontal positions, although sperm whales also rest vertically.<ref name="OH3">{{Citation|title=Stereotypical resting behaviour of the sperm whale. |first1=P. J. O. |last1=Miller |first2=K. |last2=Aoki |first3=L. E. |last3=Rendell |first4=M. |last4=Amano |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=1 |date=2008 |pages=R21–R23 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.003 |pmid=18177706|s2cid=10587736 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18..R21M }}</ref> However, as they consciously need to breathe at the surface, they can rest only one-half of their brain at a time, known as [[unihemispheric slow-wave sleep]]. This sleep pattern has been identified in all five cetacean species that have been tested for it thus far.<ref name="2OH4">{{Citation|title=Unihemispheric slow wave sleep and the state of the eyes in a white whales |first1=O. I. |last1=Lyamin |first2=L. M. |last2=Mukhametov |first3=J. M. |last3=Seigel |first4=E. A. |last4=Nazarenko |first5=I. G. |last5=Polyakova |first6=O. V. |last6=Shpak |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |volume=129 |issue=1–2 |date=2002 |pages=125–129 |doi=10.1016/S0166-4328(01)00346-1 |pmid=11809503|pmc=8788623 |s2cid=27009685 }}</ref> Cetaceans intermittently come to the surface in order to breathe during these sleep periods and exhibit logging behaviour. Logging can occur interchangeably with surface resting behaviour when cetaceans are travelling slowly, which is particularly common in mother-calf pairs,<ref name="2OH5">{{Citation |url=https://oceania.org.au/expedition/hervey.html |title="Why do the Humpback Whales visit Hervey Bay?"|publisher=The Oceania Project |access-date=2015-05-13}}</ref> as the young tire quickly during swimming. Logging is common, particularly in [[right whales]], [[sperm whales]], [[pilot whales]] and [[humpback whales]]. Another behaviour that may be mistaken for logging is ''milling'', where a group of cetaceans at the surface have little or no directional movement<ref name="2OH6">{{Citation |title=Vocalizations of the North Atlantic pilot whale (''Globicephala melas'') as related to behavioral contexts |first1=L. S. |last1=Weilgart |first2=H. |last2=Whitehead |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=26 |issue=6 |date=1990 |pages=399–402 |doi=10.1007/BF00170896|bibcode=1990BEcoS..26..399W |s2cid=34187605 }}</ref> but instead socialise with each other. This behaviour is particularly common in large groups of pilot whales.<ref name="2OH6" />

==Dive times==
Time intervals between surfacing can vary depending on the species, surfacing style or the purpose of the dive; some species have been known to dive for up to 85 minutes at a time when hunting,<ref name="test_1">[http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/the-deepest-divers "The Deepest Divers"], Oceanus Magazine, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.</ref> and dives in excess of three hours have been observed in [[Cuvier's beaked whale]] under extreme circumstances.<ref name="JEB">{{cite journal|last1=Quick|first1=Nicola J.|last2=Cioffi|first2=William R.|last3=Shearer|first3=Jeanne M.|last4=Fahlman|first4=Andreas|last5=Read|first5=Andrew J.|date=15 September 2020|title=Extreme diving in mammals: first estimates of behavioural aerobic dive limits in Cuvier's beaked whales|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=223|issue=18|pages=jeb222109|doi=10.1242/jeb.222109|pmid=32967976|s2cid=221886321|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Human interaction ==
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:My Whale Captures (7846805436).jpg|Humpback whale and kayakers off [[Avila Beach, California]]
File:Humpback whale 2009-11-25.jpg|Humpback whales off [[Saint-Gilles, Réunion]]
File:NOAA ecologist Lisa Ballance with killer whale.jpg|[[NOAA]] marine ecologist Lisa Ballance with a curious baby [[orca]], possibly a new species. Southern [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.
File:Dolphin at Dalkey Island.jpg|[[Bottlenose dolphin]] and a [[paddling|paddler]] at [[Dalkey Island]]
</gallery>

[[Whale watching]] is carried out on every continent, with an estimated 13 million people participating in 2008.<ref name="OH7">{{Citation |title=Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits: a special report from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth MA, USA. |first1=S. |last1=O'Connor |first2=R. |last2=Campbell |first3=H. |last3=Cortez |first4=T. |last4=Knowles |journal=Economists at Large |year=2009 |url=http://www.ifaw.org/whalewatchingworldwide |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801214512/http://www.ifaw.org/whalewatchingworldwide |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 1, 2012 }}</ref> This, when combined with the sustained increase in boat vessel traffic, has likely affected the surface activity of cetaceans. When boats and other whale watching vessels approach, most cetaceans will either avoid or seek interactions. The occasions where no effect is seen is predominantly when the cetaceans are travelling or feeding, but not when they are showing surface activity.<ref name="Gordon1992">{{Citation|title=Effects of whale-watching vessels on the surface and underwater acoustic behaviour of sperm whales off Kaikoura, New Zealand.|year=1992|first1=J.|last1=Gordon|first2=R.|last2=Leaper|first3=F. G.|last3=Hartley|first4=O.|last4=Chappell|journal=Wellington, N.Z.: Head Office, Department of Conservation|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/sr52.pdf|access-date=2015-05-20}}</ref> In the case of avoidance, the animals may dive rather than staying submerged near the surface or move horizontally away from the vessels.<ref name="Stamation2010">{{Citation|title=Behavioral responses of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to whale-watching vessels on the southeastern coast of Australia|year=2010|volume=26|issue=1|pages=98–122|journal=Marine Mammal Science|first1=K. A.|last1=Stamation|first2=D. B.|last2=Croft|first3=P. D.|last3=Shaughnessy|first4=K. A.|last4=Waples|first5=S. V.|last5=Briggs|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2009.00320.x|bibcode=2010MMamS..26...98S }}</ref> For example, when sperm whales are approached by boats they surface less, shorten the intervals between breathes and do not show their fluke before diving as often.<ref name="Gordon1992" /> Cetaceans may also reduce their acrobatic surfacing behaviours, such as when [[humpback whale]] groups without calves are approached by vessels to within 300 m.<ref name="Corkeron1995">{{Citation|title=Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Hervey Bay, Queensland: behaviour and responses to whale-watching vessels|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|first1=P. J.|last1=Corkeron|year=1995|volume=73|issue=7|pages=1290–1299|doi=10.1139/z95-153}}</ref> Avoidance behaviour is typical of whales, but interactions are more common in whale groups that contain calves<ref name="Stamation2010" /> and also in the smaller [[odontocetes]]. For example, studies on [[killer whale]]s in North America have shown that the focal animals increased their tail-slapping behaviour when approached by boats within 100 m, and that 70% of surface active behaviours (SABs) in these orca were seen when a boat was within 225 m.<ref name="Noren2009">{{Citation|title=Close approaches by vessels elicit surface active behaviors by southern resident killer whales.|year=2009|journal=Endangered Species Research|volume=8|issue=3|pages=179–192|doi=10.3354/esr00205|first1=D. P.|last1=Noren|first2=A. H.|last2=Johnson|first3=D.|last3=Rehder|first4=A.|last4=Larson|doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, [[dusky dolphin]]s also jump, change direction and form tighter groups more when boats are present, particularly when they do not adhere to the regulations about approach.<ref name="Barr1999">{{Citation|title=Effects of tourism on dusky dolphins at Kaikoura.|journal=Wellington: Department of Conservation|first1=K.|last1=Barr|first2=E.|last2=Slooten|year=1999|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/casn229.pdf|access-date=2015-05-20}}</ref> As an increase in SABs is beneficial to the [[whale watching]] tours' participants, the tours may be encouraged to approach cetaceans closer than recommended by guidelines. There is a lack of understanding about the long-term effects of whale-watching on the behaviour of cetaceans, but it is theorised that it may cause avoidance of popular sites,<ref name="Corkeron1995" /> or a decrease in the energy budget for individuals involved.<ref name="Stamation2010" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Cetaceans|Oceans}}
* [[Beached whale]]
*[[Tail-walking]]
<br>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation
|last1=Würsig
|first1=B.
|last2=Dorsey
|first2=E.M.
|last3=Richardson
|first3=W.J.
|last4=Wells
|first4=R.S.
|year=1989
|title=Feeding, aerial and play behaviour of the bowhead whale, ''Balaena mysticetus'', summering in the Beaufort Sea
|journal=Aquatic Mammals
|volume=15
|issue=1
|pages=27–37
|url=http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/1989/Aquatic_Mammals_15_1/Wursig.pdf}}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Whales swimming|Jumping cetaceans|Whale watching}}
*[https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/spectacular-video-shows-playful-orcas-surfing-in-ship-s-wake-in-b-c-1.3048401 Orcas surfing in ship's wake, Jackie Dunham, CTV News]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOq1T3tHaeU Whale surfacing behaviors: breaching, logging, flipper slapping, video by Matteo Sommacal]

[[Category:Whales]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Mammal behavior]]
[[Category:Cetaceans]]