Editing Chandragupta II

{{Short description|Ruler of Gupta Empire from c. 375 to c. 415}}
{{other uses|Chandragupta (disambiguation){{!}}Chandragupta}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Chandragupta II
| title        = [[Vikramāditya]]<br>(The Sun of Valour)<br/>[[Maharajadhiraja|Mahārājādhirāja]]<br>Paramabhattaraka<br>[[Devaraja|Devrāja]]<br/>(The God King)<br>Rājarshi<br>Lord of the Three Oceans<br>Apratiratha<br>[[Vaishnav|Paramabhāgavata]]<br>Chakra-Vikramah

| image        = ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg
| image_size   = 
| caption      = An 8 gram gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a caparisoned horse, with a bow in his left hand.<ref>*{{British-Museum-db|1910,0403.26|C_1910-0403-26}}</ref> The name ''Cha-gu-pta'' appears in the upper left [[Quadrant (circle)|quadrant]].

| succession = [[List of Gupta emperors|Gupta emperor]]  
| reign = {{circa|375 or 380|415 CE}}<br/>(35-40 years)  
| coronation  = {{circa|380 CE}} 
| predecessor = [[Samudragupta]], possibly [[Ramagupta]]  
| successor = [[Kumaragupta I]]

| birth_date   = (Unknown) possibly {{circa|345-350 CE}}
| birth_place  = [[Pataliputra]],<br/>
[[Gupta Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Circa|415 CE}}
| death_place  = [[Pataliputra]] <br/>or possibly [[Ujjain]],<br/> [[Gupta Empire]]
| spouse       = [[Dhruvadevi]], Kuberanaga
| issue        = {{flatlist|
* [[Kumaragupta I]]
* [[Prabhavatigupta]]
* [[Govindagupta]]}}
| father       = [[Samudragupta]]
| mother       = [[Dattadevi]]
| dynasty      = [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]]
| religion     = [[Hinduism]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594202056/page/378/mode/2up |title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|author=Doniger, Wendy|year=2009 |page=379|isbn=9781594202056 |access-date=2022-09-24 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Infobox military person
                       | embed        = yes
                       
| allegiance   =  [[Gupta Empire]]
                       
| branch       =  [[Gupta Empire#Military|Gupta Army]] 
                       
| rank         = [[Commander-in-chief|Supreme Commander]]

| battles_label =  
| battles = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|{{tree list}}  
Wars of Chandragupta II  
**Gupta Conquests of Bengal (c. 320–380)  
**[[Gupta-Saka Wars]] (c. 375–385)  
***Defeat of the Western Kshatrapas  
**Northern and Northwestern Campaigns  
***Conquests in Punjab  
**Gupta-Kidarite wars(390–399)  
***Campaigns against the Kidarite Huns  
***Battle of Begram  
***Battle of Kapisa Valley  
***Battle of Sistan  
***Submission of Varahran  
***Battle of Balkh 
***Battle of Oxus 
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}
}}

'''Chandragupta II''' (r. c. 375–415 CE), also known as '''Vikramaditya''', was the son of [[Samudragupta]], He was one of the greatest emperors of the [[Gupta Empire]], taking it to its zenith. His reign marked the peak of [[India]]'s [[Golden Age]], with advancements in art, literature, science, and governance.

He is identified with King Chandra of the [[Delhi]]'s Iron Pillar inscription, which records his military victories. He continued the [[Samudragupta#Military campaigns & territorial expansion|expansionist policy]] of his father [[Samudragupta]] through military conquests and marital alliances. Historical evidence attests to his remarkable victories, which include the defeat of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prakash |first=Buddha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqI5AQAAIAAJ |title=Studies in Indian History and Civilization |date=1962 |publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala |language=en}}</ref> the [[Gupta–Saka Wars|conquest]] of the [[Western Kshatrapas]] and the vassalization of the [[Hephthalites|Hunas]]. Under the reign of Chandragupta II, the Gupta Empire reached its zenith, directly controlling a vast territory which stretched from the [[Oxus River]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agrawal |first=Ashvini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |date=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |page=240 & 264 |language=en}}</ref> in the west to the [[Bengal]] region in the east, and from the foothills of the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Narmada River]] in the south. Chandragupta II expanded his influence and indirectly ruled over the [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]] region of Karnataka through a marriage alliance with Kadambas, and during his daughter [[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavatigupta's]] 20 years long regency, he effectively integrated the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka kingdom]] into the Gupta Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hem Channdra |url=http://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft |title=Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty |date=1923 |publisher=Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta |others=Robarts - University of Toronto |pages=282–288}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107941/page/n17/mode/2up |title=Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903}}</ref>{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=91}}

Chandragupta II was a devout [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnav]] but tolerated other faiths as well. He was a great patron of learning, his court is said to have hosted the legendary Navaratnas (Nine Gems). His rule strengthened trade, culture, and administration, making him one of [[India]]'s most celebrated monarchs. The Chinese pilgrim [[Faxian]], who visited India during his reign, suggests that he ruled over a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. The legendary figure of [[Vikramaditya]] is probably based on Chandragupta II (among other kings), and the noted [[Sanskrit]] poet [[Kalidasa]] may have been his court poet. The cave shrines at [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] were also built during his rule. He was succeeded by [[Kumaragupta I]].

== Names and titles ==
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| header="Chandra" inscriptions
| total_width=300
| image1   = Name Chandra in Gupta script on the coinage of Chandragupta II.jpg
| image2   = Chandra on the Iron Pillar of Delhi.jpg
| footer=The name "Chandra" on a coin of Chandragupta II (left), and on the [[Iron Pillar of Delhi]] (right). [[Gupta script]]: letter ''"Cha"'' [[File:Gupta allahabad c.svg|12px]], followed by the [[conjunct consonant]] ''"ndra"'' <sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad ndr.jpg|14px]]</sub> formed of the vertical combination of the three letters ''n'' [[File:Gupta allahabad n.svg|14px]] ''d'' [[File:Gupta allahabad d.svg|14px]] and ''r'' [[File:Gupta ashoka r.svg|14px]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bandela |first1=Prasanna Rao |title=Coin Splendour: A Journey Into the Past |date=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=9788170174271 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUg2BBJr7kC&pg=PA11 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=JA>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=John |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties |date=1914 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n166 24] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Chandragupta name on coinage.jpg|thumb|290px|The full name "Chandragupta" in Gupta script ([[Gupta script]]: [[File:Gupta allahabad c.svg|10px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad ndr.jpg|14px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad gu.jpg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pt.jpg|12px]]</sub>) ''Cha-ndra-gu-pta'', on coinage.<ref name=JA/>]]
Chandragupta II was the second ruler of the dynasty to bear the name "Chandragupta", the first being his grandfather [[Chandragupta I]]. He was also simply known as "Chandra", as attested by his coins.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=480}} The Sanchi inscription of his officer [[Amrakarddava|Amrakardava]] states that he was also known as Deva-raja. The records of his daughter [[Prabhavatigupta]], issued as a [[Vakataka]] queen, call him Chandragupta as well as Deva-gupta.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=63}} Deva-shri ([[IAST]]: Devaśri) is another variation of this name.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}} The [[Delhi iron pillar]] inscription states that king Chandra was also known as "Dhava": if this king Chandra is identified with Chandragupta ([[#Other military victories|see below]]), it appears that "Dhava" was another name for the king. Another possibility is that "dhava" is a mistake for a common noun "bhava", although this is unlikely, as the rest of the inscription does not contain any errors.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|pp=63–64}}

A passage in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' suggests that major parts of the eastern coast of India – [[Kosala]], [[Odra kingdom|Odra]], [[Tamralipta]], and [[Puri]] – were ruled by the Devarakshitas around the same time as the Guptas. Since it seems unlikely that an obscure dynasty named Devarakshita was powerful enough to control substantial territory during the Gupta period, some scholars, such as [[Dasharatha Sharma]], theorize that "Deva-rakshita" ([[IAST]]: Devarakṣita) was another name for Chandragupta II. Others, such as D. K. Ganguly, oppose this theory, arguing that this identification is quite arbitrary, and cannot be explained satisfactorily.{{sfn|Dilip Kumar Ganguly|1987|pp=5–6}}

Chandragupta assumed the titles ''Bhattaraka'' and ''Maharajadhiraja'', and bore the epithet ''Apratiratha'' ("having no equal or antagonist"). The [[Supiya]] stone pillar inscription, issued during the reign of his descendant [[Skandagupta]], also calls him "Vikramaditya".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}} Some other notable titles such as ''Lord of the Three Oceans'' and ''[[Rishi|Ascetic King]]'' ("King of the Brahmins") are also accoladed to Chandragupta II.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bakker |first=Hans T. |date=2019 |title=Holy Ground: Where Art and Text Meet |url=https://www.academia.edu/41347365/_ERC_Holy_Ground_Where_Art_and_Text_Meet_Studies_in_the_Cultural_History_of_India |journal=Holy Ground: Where Art and Text Meet |pages=138}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRBuAAAAMAAJ |title=A Comprehensive History of India: pt. 1. A.D. 300-985 |date=1981 |publisher=People's Publishing House |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==

Chandragupta was a son of [[Samudragupta]] and queen [[Dattadevi]], as attested by his own inscriptions.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}} According to the official Gupta genealogy, Chandragupta succeeded his father on the Gupta throne. The Sanskrit play ''[[Devichandraguptam]]'', combined with other evidence suggests that he had an elder brother named [[Ramagupta]], who preceded him on the throne. In the play, Ramagupta decides to surrender his queen [[Dhruvadevi]] to a [[Indo-Scythians|Shaka]] enemy when besieged, but Chandragupta goes to the enemy camp disguised as the queen and kills the enemy. Sometime later, Chandragupta dethrones Ramagupta, and becomes the new king.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=479}} The historicity of this narrative is debated among modern historians, with some believing it to be based on true historical events, while others dismissing it as a work of fiction.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=139}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=51}}

== Period of reign ==
{{Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Inscribed Pillar - Recording Installation of Two Shiva Lingas by Udita Acharya in the Reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya - 380 CE - Rangeshwar Temple - ACCN 29-1931 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5503.JPG|thumb|The pillar inscribed with the [[Lakulisa Mathura Pillar Inscription]], [[Mathura]] recording the installation of two [[Lingam|Shiva Lingas]] by Udita Acharya in the "year 61 following the [[Gupta era|era of the Guptas]] in the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, son of [[Samudragupta]]" (380 CE). Rangeshwar Temple. [[Mathura Museum]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=98}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds |url=https://vmis.in/ArchiveCategories/collection_gallery_zoom?id=1335&search=1&index=161816&searchstring=year%2061 |website=vmis.in |publisher=American Institute of Indian Studies}}</ref> [[Mathura Museum]].]]
The [[Lakulisa Mathura Pillar Inscription|Mathura]] pillar inscription of Chandragupta II (as well as some other Gupta inscriptions) mention two dates: several historians have assumed that one of these dates denotes the king's regnal year, while the other date denotes the year of the [[Gupta era|Gupta calendar era]].{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=169}} However, Indologist Harry Falk in 2004 has theorised that the date understood to be the regnal year by the earlier scholars is actually a date of the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' system.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=171}} According to Falk, the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' system is a continuation of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushana]] calendar era established by emperor [[Kanishka]], whose coronation Falk dates to 127 CE. The Kushana era restarts counting after a hundred years (e.g. the year after 100 is 1, not 101).{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|pp=168–171}}

The date portion of the Mathura inscription reads (in [[IAST]]):{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=169}}

: candragupta-sya vijarajya-saṃvatsa[re] ... kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare ekaṣaṣṭhe 60 ... [pra]thame śukla-divase paṃcāmyaṃ

The letters before the words ''kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare'' are abraded in the inscription, but historian [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] (1931–1932) reconstructed them as ''gupta'', and translated the term ''gupta-kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare'' as "year following the Gupta era". He translated the entire sentence as:{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|pp=169–170}}

: In the ... year of ... Chandragupta, ... on the fifth of the bright half of the first ([[Ashadha]]) of the year 61 following the Gupta era.

Historian [[D. C. Sircar]] (1942) restored the missing letters as "[paṃ]cāme" ("fifth") and concluded that the inscription was dated to the Chandragupta's fifth regnal year.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=170}} The missing letters have alternatively been read as "prathame" ("first"). According to these interpretations, the inscription is thus dated in year 61 of the Gupta era, and either the first or the fifth regnal year of Chandragupta. Assuming that the Gupta era starts around 319–320 CE, the beginning of Chandragupta's reign can be dated to either 376–377 CE or 380–381 CE.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=52}}

Falk agrees that the missing letters denote a numerical year, but dismisses Sircar's reading as "mere imagination", pointing out that the missing letters are "abraded beyond recovery".{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|pp=169–171}} In support of his Kushana era theory, Falk presents four Gupta inscriptions (in chronological order) that mention the term ''kālānuvarttamāna-saṃvatsare'':{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=172}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Inscription !! Reigning monarch !! Dynastic year !! ''kālānuvarttamāna'' year
|-
| Mathura pillar || Chandragupta II || Abraded || 61
|-
| Lintel || Not mentioned || Not given || 70
|-
| [[Yaksha]] figure || Kumaragupta I || 112 || 5
|-
| Buddhist image pedestal || Kumaragupta I || 121 || 15
|}

Falk notes that the "dynastic year" in the table above appears to be a year of the Gupta era. The ''kālānuvarttamāna'' year cannot be regnal year, because Chandragupta I is not known to have ruled for as long as 61 years. If we assume "61" of the Mathura pillar inscription denotes a year of the Gupta era (as assumed by Bhandarkar, Sircar and other scholars), we must assume that "15" of the Buddhist image pedestal also denotes a year of the Gupta era: this is obviously incorrect, since Kumaragupta I ruled after Chandragupta II. Scholars K.K. Thaplyal and R.C. Sharma, who studied the Buddhist image pedestal inscription, speculated that the scribe had mistakenly interchanged the years 121 and 15, but Falk calls this assumption unnecessary.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=172}}

According to Falk, the discrepancy can be explained satisfactorily, if we assume that the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' era denotes a system that restarts counting after a hundred years. The Yaksha figure inscription is dated to year 112 of the Gupta era (c. 432 CE), which corresponds to the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' year 5. Thus, the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' era used during Kumaragupta's time must have started in 432–5 = 427 CE. The years mentioned in the Buddhist image pedestal inscription also suggests that the epoch of this era was c. 426–427 CE.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|pp=172–173}} Since the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' system restarts counting every 100 years, the ''kālānuvarttamāna'' era used during the reign of Chandragupta II must have started in 327 CE. Thus, the Mathura inscription can be dated to 327+61 = c. 388 CE.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=173}} While Falk's theory does not change the Gupta chronology significantly, it implies that the date of the Mathura inscription cannot be used to determine the beginning of Chandragupta's reign.{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|p=173}}

The Sanchi inscription, dated to 412–413 CE (year 93 of the Gupta era), is the last known dated inscription of Chandragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}} His son Kumaragupta was on the throne by the 415–416 CE (year 96 of the Gupta era), so Chandragupta's reign must have ended sometime during 412–415 CE.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=64}}

== Military career ==
[[File:401_CE_Udayagiri_Sanskrit_inscriptions_Hindu_caves.jpg|thumb|Cave 6 and Cave 8 inscriptions at [[Udayagiri Caves]] mention the rule of Chandragupta II.]]
The [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] inscription of Chandragupta's foreign minister Virasena suggests that the king had a distinguished military career. It states that he "bought the earth", paying for it with his prowess, and reduced the other kings to the status of slaves.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|pp=52–53}} His empire seems to have extended from the mouth of the Indus and northern Pakistan in the west to the Bengal region in the east, and from the [[Himalayan foothills]] in the north to the [[Narmada River]] in the south.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=480}}{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=92}}

Chandragupta's father [[Samudragupta]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] are known to have performed the [[Ashvamedha]] horse sacrifice to proclaim their military prowess. In the 20th century, the discovery of a stone image of a horse found near [[Varanasi]], and the misreading of its inscription as "Chandramgu" (taken to be "Chandragupta"), led to speculation that Chandragupta also performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. However, there is no actual evidence to support this theory.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=59}}

=== Western Kshatrapas ===
{{Main|Gupta–Saka Wars}}

Historical and literary evidence suggests that Chandragupta II achieved military successes against the [[Western Kshatrapas]] (also known as [[Shakas]]), who ruled in west-central India.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}} The [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription of Chandragupta's father [[Samudragupta]] names the "Shaka-Murundas" among the kings who tried to appease him.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=125}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=77–78}} It may be possible that Samudragupta reduced the Shakas to a state of subordinate alliance, and Chandragupta completely subjugated them.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=54}}

Virasena's Udayagiri inscription describes him as a resident of [[Pataliputra]], and states that he came to Udayagiri in Central India with the king who sought to "conquer the whole world". This indicates that Chandragupta had reached Udayagiri in central India during a military campaign. The theory that Chandragupta led an army to Central India is also corroborated by the c. 412–413 CE (Gupta year 93) Sanchi inscription of [[Amrakarddava|Amrakardava]], who is said to have "acquired victory and fame in many battles and whose livelihood was secured by serving Chandragupta." A c. 401–402 CE (Gupta year 82) inscription of Chandragupta's feudatory ''Maharaja'' Sanakanika has also been discovered in Central India. The only important power to have ruled in this region during Chandragupta's period were the Western Kshatrapas, whose rule is attested by their distinct coinage. The coins issued by the Western Kshatrapa rulers abruptly come to end in the last decade of the 4th century.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}} The coins of this type reappear in the second decade of the 5th century, and are dated in the Gupta era, which suggests that Chandragupta subjugated the Western Kshatrapas.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=54}}

The exact date of Chandragupta's victory is not known, but it can be tentatively dated to sometime between 397 and 409.{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=91}} The last of the 4th century Kshatrapa coins – that of [[Rudrasimha III]] – can be dated to the [[Shaka era|Shaka year]] 310 or 319 (the coin legend is partially lost), that is 388 or 397.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}} Chandragupta's coins, dated to 409, are similar to the Kshtrapa coins, with the Shakas' Buddhist vihara symbol replaced by the Gupta symbol of [[Garuda]].{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=91}}

Literary evidence also corroborates Chandragupta's victory over the Western Kshatrapas. The Sanskrit play ''[[Devichandraguptam]]'', whose historicity is disputed, narrates that Chandragupta's elder brother [[Ramagupta]] agreed to surrender his queen [[Dhruvadevi]] to a Shaka chief when besieged, but Chandragupta went to the enemy camp disguised as the queen, and killed the Shaka chief.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=54}} Chandragupta bore the title ''Vikramaditya'', and several Indian legends talk of king [[Vikramaditya]] who defeated the Shakas. Several modern scholars have theorised that these legends may be based on Chandragupta's victory over the Shakas.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=54}}

As a result of his victory over the Western Kshatrapas, Chandragupta must have extended his empire up to the [[Arabian Sea]] coast in present-day [[Gujarat]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=54}}

=== Other military victories ===
{{Main|Chandragupta II's Campaign of Balkh}}
[[File:QtubIronPillar.JPG|thumb|The [[iron pillar of Delhi]], which features an inscription of king Chandra, identified as Chandragupta II. It was installed as a victory pillar in the [[Qutb complex]] by Sultan [[Iltutmish]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP37 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Inscription on Iron Pillar, Delhi.jpg|thumb|The inscription of king Chandra]]
The [[Iron pillar of Delhi#Inscription of King Chandra or Chandragupta II|iron pillar of Delhi]] contains an inscription of a king called "Chandra".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=55}} Modern scholars generally identify this king with Chandragupta II, although this cannot be said with complete certainty.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=56}}

While alternative identifications have been proposed, there is strong evidence for identifying Chandra of the iron pillar inscription as Chandragupta II:{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=480}}
* Chandragupta's coins refer to him as "Chandra".{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=480}}
* According to the iron pillar inscription, Chandra was a devotee of [[Vishnu]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=55}} Chandragupta was also a Vaishnavite, and is described as a ''Bhagvata'' (devotee of Vishnu) in the Gupta records.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=58}}
* The iron pillar is said to have been set up by king Chandra in honour of Vishnu, on a hill named Vishnu-pada, but the king seems to have died shortly before the inscription was engraved, as the inscription states that "the king has quit the earth and gone to the other world". A similar Vishnu-''dhvaja'' ([[flagpole]] in honour of Vishnu) was set up the Gupta emperor [[Skandagupta]] (a grandson of Chandragupta) after the death of his father [[Kumaragupta I]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=58}}
* According to his Udayagiri inscription, Chandragupta went on a ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' ("conquest of all quarters") campaign.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=480}} He is known to have been a powerful sovereign emperor, and this fits in well with the iron pillar inscription's description of king Chandra as someone who "attained sole supreme sovereignty in the world acquired by his own arm and (enjoyed) for a very long time".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=58}}
* The iron pillar inscription states that the southern ocean is "perfumed by the breezes" of Chandra's prowess. This may be a reference to Chandragupta's extension of the Gupta rule to the [[Arabian Sea]] after his conquest of the Western Kshatrapa territory. Arabian Sea was located to the south of the Gupta empire, and thus, the term "southern ocean" is applicable to it in this context.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=58}}
* The iron pillar inscription states that "his name was Chandra and he was holding the glory of a full moon on his face". This is reminiscent of his descendant [[Skandagupta]]'s Mandasaur inscription, which describes Chandragupta as "a moon in the galaxy of Gupta kings with the famous name Chandragupta".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}

The iron pillar inscription credits Chandra with the following victories:{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=55}}
* Defeated an alliance of enemies in the [[Vanga kingdom|Vanga country]]
* Crossed the "seven faces" of the river Sindhu ([[Indus River|Indus]]) during a war and defeated the [[Bahlikas|Vahlikas]].

==== Punjab region ====

If Chandra is identified with Chandragupta, it appears that Chandragupta marched through the [[Punjab region]], and advanced up to the country of the Vahlikas, that is, [[Balkh]] in present-day Afghanistan.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=56}} Some short Sanskrit inscriptions at the [[Sacred Rock of Hunza]] (in present-day Pakistan), written in [[Gupta script]], mention the name Chandra. A few of these inscriptions also mention the name Harishena, and one particular inscription mentions Chandra with the epithet "Vikramaditya". Based on the identification of "Chandra" with Chandragupta, and Harishena with the Gupta courtier [[Harishena]], these inscriptions can be considered as further evidence of a Gupta military campaign in the area. 

According to [[Sten Konow]], the term "seven faces", mentioned in the iron pillar inscription, refers to the seven [[river mouth|mouths]] of Indus. Historians R. C. Majumdar and K. P. Jayaswal, on the other hand, believe that the term refers to the tributaries of Indus: the five rivers of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ([[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Chenab River|Chenab]]), plus possibly the [[Kabul River|Kabul]] and the [[Kunar River|Kunar]] rivers.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=55}}

It is quite possible that Chandragupta passed through the Punjab region during this campaign: his political influence in this region is attested to by the use of the [[Gupta era]] in an inscription found at [[Shorkot]], and by some coins bearing the name "Chandragupta". However, there is no evidence that Chandragupta annexed Punjab to the Gupta Empire, which suggests that Chandragupta's victory in this region was not a decisive one. There is little evidence of Gupta influence in Punjab after his reign: numismatic evidence suggests that Punjab was ruled by petty chieftains after his death. These chieftains bore Indian names, but issued coins that imitate the [[Kidarites|Kidarite]] coinage: they may have been Hinduized foreigners or Indians continuing the usage of foreign-style coinage.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=57}}

==== Bengal region ====
The identification of Chandra with Chandragupta II also suggests Chandragupta achieved victories in the Vanga area in the present-day [[Bengal]] region. According to the [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription of his father [[Samudragupta]], the [[Samatata]] kingdom of the Bengal region was a Gupta tributary. The Guptas are known to have been ruling Bengal in the early 6th century, although there are no surviving records of the Gupta presence in this region for the intervening period.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=57}}

It is possible that a large part of the Bengal region was annexed to the Gupta empire by Chandragupta, and that this control continued into the 6th century.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|pp=57–58}} The Delhi iron pillar inscription suggests that an alliance of semi-independent chiefs of Bengal unsuccessfully resisted Chandragupta's attempts to extend the Gupta influence in this region.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=57}}

== Personal life and matrimonial alliances ==
[[File:Chandragupta II paying homage to Varaha in Udayagiri Caves.jpg|thumb|Probable image of Chandragupta II, paying homage to [[Varaha]], avatar of [[Vishnu]], in [[Udayagiri Caves]], circa 400.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Catherine |title=Not Your Average Board: The Colossal Varāha at Erāṇ, an Iconographic Innovation |journal=Artibus Asiae |year=2010 |volume=70 |issue=1 |page=127 |issn=0004-3648 |jstor=20801634}}</ref>]]
Gupta records mention [[Dhruvadevi]] as Chandragupta's queen, and the mother of his successor [[Kumaragupta I]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=191–200}} The [[Basarh]] clay seal mentions Dhruva-svamini as a queen of Chandragupta, and the mother of [[Govindagupta]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=111}}{{sfn|Romila Thapar|2013|p=359}} It is unlikely that Chandragupta had two different queens with similar names: it appears that Dhruvasvamini was most probably another name for Dhruvadevi, and that Govindagupta was a real brother of Kumaragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=30}}

Chandragupta also married Kuvera-naga (alias Kuberanaga), whose name indicates that she was a princess of the [[Nagas of Padmavati|Naga dynasty]], which held considerable power in central India before Samudragupta subjugated them. This matrimonial alliance may have helped Chandragupta consolidate the Gupta empire, and the Nagas may have helped him in his war against the Western Kshatrapas.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=60}}

[[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavati-gupta]], the daughter of Chandragupta and Kuvera-naga, married the [[Vakataka]] king [[Rudrasena II]], who ruled in the [[Deccan]] region to the south of the Gupta empire.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=59}} After her husband's death in c. 390, Prabhavati-gupta acted as a regent for her minor sons.{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=91}} In the two copper-plate inscriptions issued during her regency, the names of her Gupta ancestors with their imperial titles appear before the name of the Vakataka king with the lesser title ''Maharaja''. This suggests that the Gupta court may have had influence in the Vakataka administration during her regency.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=59}} Historians [[Hermann Kulke]] and [[Dietmar Rothermund]] believe that the Vakataka kingdom was "practically a part of the Gupta empire" during her 20-year long regency.{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|Dietmar Rothermund|2004|p=91}} The Vakatakas may have supported Chandragupta during his conflict with the Western Kshatrapas.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=60}}

The Guptas also appear to have entered into a matrimonial alliance with the [[Kadamba dynasty]], the southern neighbours of the Vakatakas. The [[Talagunda pillar inscription]] suggests that the daughters of the Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, married into other royal families, including that of the Guptas.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=174}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=60}} While Kakusthavarman was a contemporary of Chandragupta's son Kumaragupta I,{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=174}} it is noteworthy that some medieval chiefs of present-day [[Karnataka]] (where the Kadambas ruled) claimed descent from Chandragupta.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=60}} According to the [[Vikramaditya]] legends, emperor Vikramaditya (a character believed to be based on Chandragupta) sent his court poet [[Kalidasa]] as an ambassador to the lord of [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]]. While the Kuntala king referred to in this legend has been identified by some scholars with a Vakataka king, it is more likely that he was a Kadamba king, because the Vakataka king did not rule over Kuntala, and was never called the lord of Kuntala.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=60}}

== Administration ==
[[File:Bodh Gaya Bodhisattva inscribed Gupta Year 64, ie 385 CE.jpg|thumb|One of the earliest dated [[Gupta art|Gupta statues]], a [[Bodhisattva]] derived from the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] style of [[Mathura art]], inscribed "year 64" of the [[Gupta era]], 384 CE, [[Bodh Gaya]].<ref name="JHR223">{{cite journal |last1=Rhi |first1=Ju-Hyung |title=From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art |journal=Artibus Asiae |year=1994 |volume=54 |issue=3/4 |pages=223 |doi=10.2307/3250056 |issn=0004-3648|jstor=3250056 }}</ref>]]
Several feudatories of Chandragupta are known from historical records:
* [[Śakanika Maharaja (feudatory of Gupta Dynasty)|''Maharaja'' Sanakanika]], a feudatory known from the Udayagiri inscription that records his construction of a Vaishnava temple.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}}
* ''Maharaja'' Trikamala, a feudatory known from a [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] inscription engraved on a [[Bodhisattva]] image{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}}
* ''Maharaja'' Shri Vishvamitra Svami, a feudatory known from a seal found at [[Vidisha]]{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}}
* ''Maharaja'' Svamidasa, the [[Maharajas of Valkha|ruler of Valkha]], was also probably a Gupta feudatory if we assume that his inscription is dated in the [[Gupta era|Gupta calendar era]]; according to another theory, his inscription is dated in the [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri calendar era]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}}

The following ministers and officers of Chandragupta are known from various historical records:
* [[Virasena Saba|Vira-sena]], foreign minister, known from the Udayagiri inscription recording his construction of a Shiva temple{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=52}}
* [[Amrakarddava|Amrakardava]], a military officer, known from the Sanchi inscription recording his donations to the local Buddhist monastery{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}}
* Shikhara-svami, a minister; according to historian [[K. P. Jayaswal]]'s theory, he was the author of the political treatise ''Kamandakiya Niti''{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}}

== Navaratnas ==
''Jyotirvidabharana'' (22.10), a treatise attributed to [[Kalidasa]], states that nine famous scholars known as the [[Navaratnas#Vikramaditya's Navaratnas|Navaratnas]] ("nine gems") attended the court of the legendary Vikramaditya. Besides Kalidasa himself, these included [[Amarasimha]], Dhanvantari, Ghatakarapara, Kshapanaka, Shanku, [[Varahamihira]], [[Vararuchi]], and [[Vetala Bhatta]].<ref name="MS_1974">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4dVRvVyHaiQC&pg=PA100 |title=History of Classical Sanskrit Literature |author=M. Srinivasachariar |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1974 |isbn=9788120802841 |pages=94–111 }}</ref> However, there is no historical evidence to show that these nine scholars were contemporary figures or proteges of the same king.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|pp=162-163}}<ref name="VVM_1969"/> ''Jyotirvidabharana'' is considered a literary forgery of a date later than Kalidasa by multiple scholars.<ref name="VVM_1969"/><ref name="MS_1974"/> There is no mention of such "Navaratnas" in earlier literature, and D. C. Sircar calls this tradition "absolutely worthless for historical purposes".{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=120–123}}

Nevertheless, multiple scholars believe that one of these Navaratnas – Kalidasa – may have indeed flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II. These scholars include [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], [[Arthur Berriedale Keith|A. B. Keith]], and [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi]] among others.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sueiThBrP4gC&pg=PA1 |title=Kālidāsa; Date, Life, and Works |author=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi and Narayan Raghunath Navlekar |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1969 |pages=1–35 |isbn=9788171544684 }}</ref><ref name="CR_2005">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0RWnRKTWp0C&pg=PT267 |title=The Loom of Time |author=Chandra Rajan |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2005 |pages=268–274 |isbn=9789351180104 }}</ref> It is possible that Kalidasa was a court poet of Chandragupta.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=61}}

== Religion ==
[[File:Varaha at Udayagiri.jpg|thumb|Chandragupta II is associated with the development of [[Vaishnavism]] in India, and the establishment of the [[Udayagiri Caves]] with Vaishnava iconography (here [[Varaha]] saving the world from chaos).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |last2=Holt |first2=Andrew |title=Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 volumes] |date=28 November 2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-566-4 |pages=270–273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA270 |language=en}}</ref> Circa 400.<ref name="ABC-CLIO">{{cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |last2=Holt |first2=Andrew |title=Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 volumes] |date=28 November 2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-566-4 |page=271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA271 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Many gold and silver coins of Chandragupta, as well the inscriptions issued by him and his successors, describe him as a ''parama-bhagvata'', that is, a devotee of the god [[Vishnu]]. One of his gold coins, discovered at [[Bayana]], calls him ''chakra-vikramah'', literally, "[one who is] powerful [due to his possession of the] discus", and shows him receiving a [[Sudarshana Chakra|discus]] from Vishnu.{{sfn|J. N. Banerjea|1982|p=781}}

An [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] inscription records the construction of a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] cave temple by Chandragupta's feudatory ''Maharaja'' Sanakanika, in year 82 of the [[Gupta era]] (c. 401–402).{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}}

Chandragupta was also tolerant of other faiths. The Udayagiri inscription of Chandragupta's foreign minister Virasena records the construction of a temple dedicated to the god Shambhu ([[Shiva]]).{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=52}} An inscription found at [[Sanchi]] near Udayagiri records donations to the local Buddhist monastery by his military officer [[Amrakarddava|Amrakardava]], in year 93 of the Gupta era (c. 412–413).{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=53}}

== Faxian's visit ==
Chinese pilgrim [[Faxian]] visited India during the reign of Chandragupta and spent around six years in the Gupta kingdom.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}} He was mostly interested in Buddhist religious affairs and did not bother to record the name of the reigning king. His account presents an idealised picture of the Gupta administration, and not everything he states can be taken at face value. However, his description of the kingdom as a peaceful and prosperous one seems to be generally true, attested by the fact that he did not face any [[brigandage]] unlike the later Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}}

Faxian describes Madhya-desha ("Middle kingdom"), the region to the south-east of [[Mathura]], as a populous region with good climate and happy people. He mentions that the citizens were not required to "register their households or attend to any magistrates and their rules".{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}} Faxian mentions that wicked repeated rebels had their right hand cut off by the king's administration, but otherwise, there was no [[corporal punishment]] for crimes: the criminals were only fined, lightly or heavily, according to the severity of the crime.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=62}} According to Faxian, the king's bodyguards and attendants all received salaries.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}}

Faxian mentions that other than the [[untouchability|untouchable]] [[Chandala]]s, the people did not consume meat, intoxicating drinks, onions or garlic. The Chandalas lived apart from other people and struck a piece of wood to announce their presence when they entered a city or a marketplace: this would enable other people to avoid contact with them. Only the Chandalas engaged in the fisheries and hunting and sold meat. In the general markets, there were no butchers' shops or alcohol dealers, and the people did not keep pigs or fowl.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}} According to historian [[R. C. Majumdar]], Faxian's observations about the people's food habits seem to have been based on his contact with the Buddhist religious community and may not be applicable to the general public.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=63}}

Faxian mentions that the people used [[shell money|cowries]] for buying and selling goods.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}}

Faxian mentions the [[Pataliputra]] region as the most prosperous part of the Middle kingdom, describing its people as benevolent and righteous. He describes an annual Buddhist celebration, which involved a procession of 20 grand carts of [[Buddha (title)|Buddhas]], the [[Brahmin|Brahmanas]]'s invitation to the Buddhas to enter the city, and music performances. He mentions that in the cities, the [[Vaishya]] chiefs had established centres for dispensing charity and medical help to the destitute. These centres attracted the poor, the orphans, the widowers, the childless, the handicapped, and the sick, who were examined by doctors and given food and medicine until they got better.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=505}}

== Inscriptions ==
[[File:Sanchi, Inscription of Candragupta II..JPG|thumb|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]].]]

The following inscriptions of Chandragupta have been discovered:
* Mathura pillar inscription, dated to the year 61 of the Gupta era. The date has been interpreted as c. 380–381 by earlier scholars,{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=52}} but Harry Falk (2004) dates it to 388 (see [[#Period of reign|Period of reign]] section above).{{sfn|Harry Falk|2004|pp=169–173}}
* Mathura pillar inscription, undated{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}
* Udayagiri cave inscription, dated to the year 82 of the Gupta era{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}
* Udayagiri cave inscription, undated{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}
* [[Gadhwa Stone Inscriptions|Gadhwa stone inscription]], dated to the year 88 of the Gupta era{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}
* [[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II|Sanchi stone inscription]], dated to the year 93 of the Gupta era{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}
* Mehrauli iron pillar inscription, undated{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=148}}

== Coinage ==
[[File:India, Chandragupta II, Gupta Period - Coin with Figure of an Archer - 1977.62 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|300px|Gold coin of Chandragupta II, with a figure of an archer (obverse), and with a figure of the Indian goddess of good fortune, Shri, seated on a lotus (reverse), Cleveland Museum of Art]]
Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by his father [[Samudragupta]], such as the Sceptre type (rare for Chandragupta II), the Archer type, and the Tiger-Slayer type. However, Chandragupta II also introduced several new types, such as the Horseman type and the Lion-slayer type, both of which were used by his son [[Kumaragupta I]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=24–27}}

Chandragupta's various gold coins depict his martial spirit or peacetime pursuits.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|pp=61–62}}

; Lion-slayer type
: These coins depict Chandragupta slaying a lion and bear the legend ''simha-vikrama''. Similar coins issued by his father Samudragupta depict the king slaying a tiger and bear the legend ''vyaghra-parakramaha''.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=61}} Historian R. C. Majumdar theorises that Chandragupta's conquest of present-day [[Gujarat]] (where the [[Asiatic lion]] is found) may have presented him with an opportunity to hunt lions, resulting in the substitution of tiger with lion on the imperial coins.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=61}}

; Couch-and-flower type
: These coins depict Chandragupta seated on a couch and holding a flower in his right hand. The legend "rupa-kriti" occurs below the couch. These coins are similar to Samudragupta's coins which depict the king playing a musical instrument.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=61}}

; Rider type
: These coins depict the king riding a fully-[[caparison]]ed horse.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=61}}

<gallery caption="Coins of Chandragupta II" class="center" mode="packed">
Two Gold coins of Chandragupta II.jpg | Obverse of "Chhatra" type (left) and "Archer" type (right) coins
Coin of Vikramaditya Chandragupta II with the name of the king in Brahmi script 380 415 CE.jpg | Coin with the king's name in [[Brahmi]] script
Silver Coin of Chandragupta II.jpg | Silver coin in [[Western Satraps]] style (15mm, 2.1&nbsp;grams.)<ref name="CIC">"Evidence of the conquest of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurastra]] during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the [[chaitya]] with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |last2=Holt |first2=Andrew |title=Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 volumes] |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-566-4 |page=271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA271 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ABC-CLIO"/>
</gallery>

<gallery caption="Various gold coins of Chandragupta II" class="center" mode="packed">
Dinar of Chandragupta II LACMA M.77.55.19 (1 of 2).jpg
Dinar of Chandragupta II LACMA M.77.55.23 (1 of 2).jpg
Dinar of Chandragupta II LACMA M.77.55.20 (1 of 3).jpg
Dinar of Chandragupta II LACMA M.77.55.21 (1 of 2).jpg
Dinar of Chandragupta II LACMA M.77.55.22 (1 of 2).jpg
</gallery>

In addition, Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins. These coins were intended to replace the silver coinage of the [[Western Kshatrapas]] after Chandragupta II defeated them and were modelled on the Kshatrapa coinage. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagle [[Garuda]]). The obverse of these coins depicts a bust of the king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU".<ref name="Kumar">"The conquest is indicated by the issue of the new Gupta silver coinage modelled on the previous Saka coinage showing on observe the King's head, Greek script, and dates as on Saka coins" in [https://books.google.com/books?id=pSKNeJsH7QgC&pg=PA511 ''Early history of Jammu region: pre historic to 6th century A.D.'' by Raj Kumar p.511]</ref><ref name="Altekar">"Evidence of the conquest of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurastra]] during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the [[Western Satraps]]... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the [[chaitya]] with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli. Most people now realize that Rapson was mistaken in identifying the central bird as a peacock; rather, it is the mythic eagle Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas. For example, A.S. Altekar says: "... the three-arched hill in the centre is replaced by Garuda, which was the imperial insignia of the Guptas. The view of earlier writers ... that the bird is a peacock is clearly untenable." in Altekar: ''The Coinage of the Gupta Empire,'' Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University, 1957, p. 151.</ref> The reverse features the [[Brahmi]] script legend "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of [[Vishnu]]", around Garuda, the mythic eagle and dynastic symbol of the Guptas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |year=1978 |title= Oriental coins and their values |volume=2 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |at=4821–4823}}</ref>

== Personality ==

The [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] inscription of Virasena describes Chandragupta as a "king of kings" as well as an [[rishi|ascetic]] ''rajadhirajarshi'', and declares that his activities were "beyond comprehension".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=52}}

== Identification with the legendary Vikramaditya ==
[[File:Vikramaditya goes forth to war (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Vikramaditya goes forth to war'', a modern artist's imagination]]
{{main|Vikramaditya}}

[[Vikramaditya]] is a legendary emperor of ancient India, who is characterised as the ideal king, known for his generosity, courage, and patronage to scholars. A number of historians believe that at least some of the Vikramaditya legends are based on Chandragupta II. These historians include [[D. R. Bhandarkar]], [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]] and [[D. C. Sircar]] among others.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|pp=157, 161}}<ref name="VVM_1969">{{cite book |author1=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |author2=Narayan Raghunath Navlekar |title=Kalidasa: Date, Life And Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sueiThBrP4gC&pg=PA8 |publisher=Popular |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-7154-468-4 |pages=8–29 |author1-link=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi }}</ref>

Based on some coins and the [[Supiya|Supia]] pillar inscription, it is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title "Vikramaditya".{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=130}} The Cambay and Sangli plates of the [[Rashtrakuta]] king [[Govinda IV]] use the epithet "Sahasanka" for Chandragupta II. The name "Sahasanka" has also been applied to the legendary Vikramaditya.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=162}}

The legendary Vikramaditya is said to have defeated the [[Śaka]] invaders, and was therefore, known as Śakari ("enemy of the Śakas). Chandragupta II conquered [[Malwa]] after defeating the [[Western Kshatrapas]] (a branch of Śakas); he also expelled the [[Kushan Empire|Kushanas]] from [[Mathura]]. His victory over these foreign tribes was probably transposed on upon a fictional character, resulting in the Vikramaditya legends.<ref name="AH_2009">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFdosx0PokC&pg=PA263 |title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics |author=Alf Hiltebeitel |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780226340555 |pages=254–275 |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Maurice Winternitz |author2=Moriz Winternitz |title=History of Indian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql0BmInD1c4C&pg=PA42 |year=1963 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0056-4 |page=42 }}</ref>

According to most legends, Vikramaditya had his capital at Ujjain, although some legends mention him as the king of Pataliputra. The Guptas had their capital at Pataliputra. According to D. C. Sircar, Chandragupta II may have defeated the Shaka invaders of Ujjain, and placed his son Govindagupta as a viceroy there. As a result, Ujjain might have become a second capital of the Gupta empire, and subsequently, legends about him (as Vikramaditya) might have developed.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|pp=158–159, 164}}{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=131}} Guttas of Guttavalal, a minor dynasty based in present-day Karnataka, claimed descent from the imperial Guptas. The Caudadanapura inscription of the Guttas alludes to the legendary Vikramaditya ruling from Ujjayni, and several Gutta royals were named "Vikramaditya". According to Vasundhara Filliozat, their reference to the legendary Vikramaditya is simply because they confused him with Chandragupta II.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Vasundhara Filliozat |title=The Temple of Muktēśvara at Cauḍadānapura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HaQWof50aY4C&pg=PA7 |year=1995 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts / Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-327-4 |page=7 }}</ref> However, D. C. Sircar sees this as further proof that the legendary Vikramaditya was based on Chandragupta II.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=136}}

=== Vikram Samvat ===
[[Vikrama Samvat]], an Indian [[calendar era]] beginning in 57 BCE, is associated with the legendary Vikramaditya. However, this association did not exist before 9th century. The earlier sources call this era by various names, including ''Kṛṭa'', ''the era of the [[Malavas|Malava tribe]]'', or simply, ''Samvat''.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=174–175}}<ref name="MS_1974"/> Scholars such as [[D. C. Sircar]] and [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] believe that the name of the era changed to "Vikram Samvat" after the reign of Chandragupta II, who had adopted the title ''Vikramaditya''.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=165–166}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7}}
* {{cite book |author=D. C. Sircar |title=Ancient Malwa And The Vikramaditya Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IwjaugEACAAJ |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1969 |isbn=978-8121503488}}
* {{cite book |author=Dilip Kumar Ganguly |title=The Imperial Guptas and Their Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C&pg=PP1 |year=1987 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-222-2}}
* {{cite journal |author=Harry Falk |title=The Kaniṣka era in Gupta Records |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |volume=10 |publisher=Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU_rAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |pages=167–176}}
* {{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA91 |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0}}
* {{cite book |author=J. N. Banerjea |chapter=Vaishnavism, Saivism and Minor Sects |editor=R. C. Mujumdar |title=A Comprehensive History of India |volume=III, Part II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MMKAQAAIAAJ |year=1982 |publisher=Indian History Congress / Orient Longmans}}
* {{cite book |author=Kailash Chand Jain |title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA158 |year=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9}}
* {{cite book |author=R. C. Majumdar |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |title=A Comprehensive History of India |volume=3, Part I: A.D. 300-985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |oclc=34008529}}
* {{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA505 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9}}
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC |year=1989 |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions |url=https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/page/49 49] |year=1978 |publisher=Concept |oclc=5413655}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Portal|India|History|Monarchy|Biography}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Chandragupta II}}
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-chandragupta2.html Coins of Chandragupta II]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chandragupta Ii}}
[[Category:Chandragupta II| ]]
[[Category:Gupta emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:5th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:410s deaths]]
[[Category:History of Malwa]]
[[Category:4th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:5th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:4th-century maharajadhirajas]]
[[Category:5th-century maharajadhirajas]]